The Precautionary Principle and the Prevention of Marine Pollution

This paper argues that the environmental changes witnessed in the past decade call for a new approach to environmental management; an approach based not on the principle of the assimilative capacity of the environment but on the precautionary principle, and the emerging preventive environmental paradigm. Uncertainties in scientific knowledge and complexities in ecological systems have presented specific failures of the assimilative capacity methodology. It is argued that these failures are not circumstantial in nature, nor are they the result of misapplication of science by scientists. Rather, they represent inherent problems in the use of the assimilative capacity concept in environmental management. The emergence of the precautionary principle is discussed and a formulation of the principle is presented. In conjunction with the operational approach of clean production, we believe that this principle offers a sounder basis for the prevention of marine pollution in the next decade.     

The Scientific Basis of Marine Pollution Prevention Strategies

Abstract

Prevention of marine pollution, particularly in semi-enclosed seas, embayments and areas with limited exchange of water, requires a well conceived and harmonized legal system, specified standards, a monitoring programme, and effective control and enforcement capabilities. This comprehensive approach is often called a strategy. Three generations of strategies have been devised and applied historically in Europe and North America, each a step further in integrating environmental protection, technical advancement and economic capabilities. the overpowering socio-economic problems of transition from a centrally planned to a market economy, a task facing a dozen central and eastern European coastal states, compound the problem of application of an integrated approach.

No management strategy can achieve its set goals unless based on scientific evidence. the data base has to offer information on two basic questions, one specific and one of a general nature.

The specific question is: Has the area under consideration some features, an activity, or one or more living species, which must be protected at any cost? the answer to this question will invoke the precautionary principle into strategic considerations, and leads to the general question: What is the carrying (= assimilative or environmental) capacity for each activity and for the discharge of each contaminant into the impacted area? Answers to these questions lead to the choice of the strategy for environmental management.     

The Scientific Basis of Marine Pollution Prevention Strategies

Prevention of marine pollution, particularly in semi-enclosed seas, embayments and areas with limited exchange of water, requires a well conceived and harmonized legal system, specified standards, a monitoring programme, and effective control and enforcement capabilities. This comprehensive approach is often called a strategy. Three generations of strategies have been devised and applied historically in Europe and North America, each a step further in integrating environmental protection, technical advancement and economic capabilities. the overpowering socio-economic problems of transition from a centrally planned to a market economy, a task facing a dozen central and eastern European coastal states, compound the problem of application of an integrated approach.

No management strategy can achieve its set goals unless based on scientific evidence. the data base has to offer information on two basic questions, one specific and one of a general nature.

The specific question is: Has the area under consideration some features, an activity, or one or more living species, which must be protected at any cost? the answer to this question will invoke the precautionary principle into strategic considerations, and leads to the general question: What is the carrying (= assimilative or environmental) capacity for each activity and for the discharge of each contaminant into the impacted area? Answers to these questions lead to the choice of the strategy for environmental management.     

Description and sensitivity analysis for the LESV model: Water quality variables and the balance of organisms in a fjordic region of restricted exchange

In this paper we describe a new ecological model for Regions of Restricted Exchange (RRE), such as fjords, estuaries, rias and lagoons. The model is intended to simulate the impact of external nutrient input on microplankton (phytoplankton plus pelagic microheterotrophs) in RREs. We have implemented the model with the practical purpose of finding a safe limit to the capacities of RRE to assimilate fish-farm waste. Sea-cage farming of fish is increasing in fjords in northern and southern hemispheres, and its external nutrient input can lead to environmental problems such as eutrophication and deoxygenation. The model includes a physical system of three layers with exchanges driven by tidal movement, freshwater input, wind stirring. The biological part includes two microplankton compartments, each parameterizing a microbial loop and each containing chlorophyll. The first compartment represents diatoms and associated heterotrophs, and the second compartment represents flagellates and associated heterotrophs. As well as the balance of these organisms, the model simulates concentrations of nutrient N, P, and Si, dissolved oxygen, and water transparency. Chlorophyll and nutrient change are linked by yields (q  ). Losses of microplankton to grazing by mesozooplankton or benthos are simulated by a temperature-dependent grazing pressure acting on a mean loss (_L0)$(L_0)$. The model also includes the ability to simulate point source inputs of nutrients or organic matter and a generic tracer with first order decay. Sea-cage fish-farms exemplify such point sources. In order to explore model behaviour, we included inputs from a 1500 tonnes salmon farm multiplied by a factor (γ)$(\gamma )$. We carried out sensitivity analysis to identify the most influential model parameters and forcing variables in the case of the shallow Scottish fjord, Loch Creran, in 1975 before the introduction of salmon farming. We tested the model fit to this pristine state (γ=0)$(\gamma =0)$, using Major Axis Regression of simulated variables on observed variables. The model successfully follows the seasonal cycles of chlorophyll (summer over both microplanktons) and the limiting nutrients (P, N). The sensitivity analysis identified three sets of key parameters: (γ)$(\gamma )$ and other fish-farm coefficients, which control farm waste effects on an RRE; (_L0)$(L_0)$ parameters for each microplankton, which link these to the rest of the ecosystem and which have implications for future inclusion of shellfish farming in the model and, chlorophyll yields from nutrients (q), which are crucial for the predication of eutrophication and the ecological understanding of the model.     

地理信息系统在近岸海域环境管理中的应用

文章研究了地理信息系统技术在某滨海城市近岸海域环境管理中的应用 ,研究表明在地理信息系统支持下的近岸海域环境管理包括 :海洋污染源管理、海洋环境质量评价等 ,具有界面友好、形象直观、使用方便、易于操作和维护等优点。     

Institutional deficiencies and capacity building constraints: the dilemma for environmentally sustainable development in Africa

SUMMARY

The authors question Africa's ability to achieve sustainable development in view of the erosion of its institution building capacity, a problem compounded by the alarming rate of Africa's continuing marginalisation in the world economy. The situation has been provoked by inappropriate domestic policies which have not only compromised Africa's competitiveness, but also made it particularly vulnerable given the increasing globalisation of markets and factors of production. The benefits associated with effective global economic participation transcend direct financial gains and include technology transfers, technical and managerial skills transfers, and other skills transfers associated with the ‘learning and doing’ process. These benefits are instrumental in the development of the economic, administrative, legislative and social institutions that prescribe the organisational and managerial structure of an economy and define its capacity for sustainable growth. In Africa, the absence of such structures has undermined development efforts and created large impoverished populations. But poverty in living standards is not only prevalent, there is also the acute poverty in knowledge and skills which is so damaging to institution building capacity. The socio-economic impact is manifest in dilapidated infrastructure, decaying institutions, the exodus of the professional and managerial cadre, and the almost total disintegration of society. It is within this context that Africa's ability to evolve and effectively manage sustainable development policies is questioned. The study concludes that the continent's capacity to initiate sound environmental and sustainable development policies depends crucially on its ability to develop appropriate and functional institutions.     

高校主体性人力资源职业生涯发展管理研究

本文深入探讨了高校主体性人力资源的特点及其职业生涯发展的主要特征，针对高校当前在职业生涯发展管理上存在的主要问题，提出了进行管理创新的几个基础性工作，为全面有效地进行职业生涯发展管理奠定坚实的基础．     

Landbased Pollution Sources and Marine Environmental Quality in the Caribbean

Abstract

The near shore coastal and marine environment of several Caribbean islands is their most biologically productive and economically important zone. However, almost all landbased activities possess the real potential of degrading the quality of near shore waters and ultimately diminishing the utility of the marine resource. This condition is largely attributed to the individual smallness of the islands and their geographic proximity to each other.

Available sanitary water quality data from across the region indicated that while recreational areas are in general safe for water contact activities, bacterial densities in excess of several international criteria are consistently recorded in harbours. Organochlorine pesticide residues were generally in the 5 ng l^?1 range in unfiltered sea water but were significantly higher (1–100) ng g^?1 in limited samples of sediment and biota. Additional data requirements to gain further insight into the current state of the Caribbean environment are also identified.

A summary of the major land based sources of marine pollution (including sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off) in the insular Caribbean is presented.     

Landbased Pollution Sources and Marine Environmental Quality in the Caribbean

The near shore coastal and marine environment of several Caribbean islands is their most biologically productive and economically important zone. However, almost all landbased activities possess the real potential of degrading the quality of near shore waters and ultimately diminishing the utility of the marine resource. This condition is largely attributed to the individual smallness of the islands and their geographic proximity to each other.

Available sanitary water quality data from across the region indicated that while recreational areas are in general safe for water contact activities, bacterial densities in excess of several international criteria are consistently recorded in harbours. Organochlorine pesticide residues were generally in the 5 ng l^-1 range in unfiltered sea water but were significantly higher (1-100) ng g^-1 in limited samples of sediment and biota. Additional data requirements to gain further insight into the current state of the Caribbean environment are also identified.

A summary of the major land based sources of marine pollution (including sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off) in the insular Caribbean is presented.     

美、日、英、法等国的环境管理体制概况及其对我国的启示

本文简要介绍了美日英法四环境管理体制的状况,分析了四国在环境管理体制建设方面的有益经验及其对我国的启示。     

The Declining Influence of Science On Marine Environmental Policy

Abstract

Differences between the scientific and environmental policy communities regarding marine environmental protection strategies are discussed in the context of the nature and extent of scientific influence on marine environmental policy. Public perceptions of the nature and severity of marine pollution frequently differ from scientific assessments. the thesis of this paper is that the increasing influence of public perception on marine environmental protection policy is leading to the adoption of simplistic and unnecessarily extreme approaches to marine pollution prevention and to a reduced reliance on science. This trend is illustrated by some recent international developments and some suggestions are made towards enhancing the influence of science on marine protection policy.     

The Declining Influence of Science On Marine Environmental Policy

Differences between the scientific and environmental policy communities regarding marine environmental protection strategies are discussed in the context of the nature and extent of scientific influence on marine environmental policy. Public perceptions of the nature and severity of marine pollution frequently differ from scientific assessments. the thesis of this paper is that the increasing influence of public perception on marine environmental protection policy is leading to the adoption of simplistic and unnecessarily extreme approaches to marine pollution prevention and to a reduced reliance on science. This trend is illustrated by some recent international developments and some suggestions are made towards enhancing the influence of science on marine protection policy.     

城市环境污染治理资金来源的数量分析

以重庆市为例，论证了城市环境保护资金来源的不足、不稳定、不增长特点，提出制定和落实法定环保资金比例，采用清洁生产促进经济发展与环境保护的协调。     

区域建设项目的污染物排放总量控制方法框架

针对目前还缺乏可操作的建设项目环境管理实施污染物排放总量控制(以下简称总量控制)的方法,基于郑州市环境保护局在建设项目环境管理实施总量控制方面的多年实践与经验,探讨了对总量已超出区域环境容量的地区如何对建设项目实施总量控制,如何确定区域污染减排和综合整治总量控制目标的确定,如何构建新、老污染源之间良性互动机制以及制定建设项目实施总量控制的政策、制度和管理措施保障,为区域建设项目环境管理实施总量控制提供了理论和方法框架。     

我国畜禽养殖业存在的环境污染问题及治理对策

畜禽养殖业环境污染问题越来越引起了人们的关注．本文概述了我国畜禽养殖业中存在的环境污染问题并从保护生态环境角度出发，提出了利用现代微生物工程应用技术和常规的处理方法相结合的治理措施。     

Selection of Bioindicators of Pollution for Marine Monitoring Programmes

The ultimate management concerns related to toxic chemicals in the marine environment are for the magnitude and extent of biological effects, including those on human health, that may result. Over the past several years, the National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has supported the development and application of a number of bioeffects measurements, including biochemical indicators of contaminant exposure and of reproductive status in fish, prevalence of histopathological lesions, toxicity bioassays of sediments and water, and benthic community structural features. Some of these measurements have been applied as part of regular sampling at the nationwide network of NS&T sites, while others have been assessed in more intensive, regional studies. Our experience with different indicators is summarized and discussed in relation to a set of monitoring objectives and evaluation criteria. Current conclusions are: (a) iterative application of controlled laboratory experiments and field validation tests are required to verify causality and mechanisms of biological responses to contaminants; (b) contaminant concentrations, indicator species, and local conditions vary considerably in different areas and at different times, requiring the use of different effects measurements oriented toward specific objectives and hypotheses; and (c) tiered, sequential application of a mix of indicators, including direct measurements on indigenous organisms and indirect bioassay approaches, is useful and effective for estimating the magnitude and spatial extent of contaminant bioeffects.     

Selection of Bioindicators of Pollution for Marine Monitoring Programmes

The ultimate management concerns related to toxic chemicals in the marine environment are for the magnitude and extent of biological effects, including those on human health, that may result. Over the past several years, the National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has supported the development and application of a number of bioeffects measurements, including biochemical indicators of contaminant exposure and of reproductive status in fish, prevalence of histopathological lesions, toxicity bioassays of sediments and water, and benthic community structural features. Some of these measurements have been applied as part of regular sampling at the nationwide network of NS&T sites, while others have been assessed in more intensive, regional studies. Our experience with different indicators is summarized and discussed in relation to a set of monitoring objectives and evaluation criteria. Current conclusions are: (a) iterative application of controlled laboratory experiments and field validation tests are required to verify causality and mechanisms of biological responses to contaminants; (b) contaminant concentrations, indicator species, and local conditions vary considerably in different areas and at different times, requiring the use of different effects measurements oriented toward specific objectives and hypotheses; and (c) tiered, sequential application of a mix of indicators, including direct measurements on indigenous organisms and indirect bioassay approaches, is useful and effective for estimating the magnitude and spatial extent of contaminant bioeffects.     

Applications of Satellite Remote Sensing to Marine Pollution Studies

There are two approaches in the application of satellite sensors to marine pollution studies. Satellite sensors are used to observe and characterize ocean pollutants such as industrial wastes and oil. in addition, satellite observations provide information useful in illuminating processes such as eutrophi-cation or air-sea exchange of CO₂, that are important in determining the distribution and fate of pollutants.

Satellite technology is an important tool in monitoring and studying ocean pollution. Visible sensors have been used to observe and characterize sewage sludge and industrial wastes dumped at sea. Oil slicks have been observed with Landsat, AVHRR and SAR imagery. Besides directly detecting pollutants, satellite sensors are useful for analyzing ocean processes that are influential in the fate of pollutants. These processes include eutrophication of coastal waters and the distribution of suspended matter. the fate of excess CO₂ can be addressed using scatterometer-derived estimates of wind speeds to determine the CO₂ exchange coefficient at the sea surface on a global scale.     

The Environmental Capacity Approach to the Control of Marine Pollution: The Case of Copper in the Krka River Estuary

Changes in soil pH, soil heavy metal forms, and the metabolic diversity of microbial communities were examined in soil samples collected in 1-mm increments from barley roots in soil contaminated with cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) using a rhizobox system. Concentrations of exchangeable Cd and Zn increased near the roots owing to a decrease in soil pH. Conversely, the concentration of inorganically bound Cd and Zn decreased near the roots. Despite having the highest concentration of the most toxic exchangeable metals, the rhizosphere also had the highest bacterial and fungal metabolic activity and diversity when assessed using BIOLOG plates. Therefore, the promoting effects of root exudates on microbial activity could outweigh the adverse effects of Cd and Zn on microorganisms in the rhizosphere.     

Principle of the worst scenario in the modelling past and future of biosphere dynamics

The “biosphere–climate” system is subjected to different influences (influx of anthropogenic CO₂ and pollutants, deforestation, harmful land management, biological species depopulation, etc.). Therefore, the vital question arises: “Can these influences lead to irreversible negative changes in the climate–biosphere system or a global ecological catastrophe?” The possibility of irreversible changes may be not very high, but one cannot ignore it. So the main aim of our investigation is to evaluate possible consequences of human impact on the biosphere focusing on irreversible changes of it.