Basis for a national strategy for integrated coastal zone management—in Portugal

This paper includes the proposals made in the report “Basis for a National Strategy for Coastal Zone Management” prepared for the Portuguese Ministry of Environment, Territorial Planning and Regional Development. The final version of that report was presented in June 2006. This paper describes a theme framework followed by a discussion of concepts. Nine Primary Principles, eight Principal Objectives, and 37 Strategic Options for an Integrated Coastal Zone Management are then presented. These Strategic Options are set hierarchically according to their sequential priority, identifying the dominant types of Associated Measures. The analysis of these arrives at a set of Structural Measures, which interlink and aggregate various actions and propose a new method of integrated management for the coastal zone, which includes the “Legal Basis of Coastal Zone”; the Organization System; the Action Plan and Monitoring.     

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal is very recent. Key issues and considerations about natural shoreline dynamics, main policy instruments, and lessons learned from the EU Demonstration Programmes on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Portugal will be outlined in this paper in an attempt to understand how the practice of ICZM and its prospects are. Coastal zone management problems and their associated side effects, as well as national and international evolution patterns will be drawn. Some means of achieving better coastal zone management practices and ways of addressing some of its forefront issues are also identified. Special attention will go to erosion problems. The pressure induced by urban development and economic activities on coastal areas is increasing. Poor sediment availability combined with years of neglected management and over-exploitation of resources have had a negative impact, and there are many areas showing evidence of coastal erosion. There is a need to improve policies and instruments of coastal planning and management. Coastal zone management plans are being developed for the nine sectors of the continental Portuguese coast, providing a full analysis of coastal systems and a delimitation of uses in relation to the carrying capacity of the shoreline.     

Optical remote sensing of coastal plumes and run-off in the Mediterranean region

Sea surface colour data, derived from the Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) archive, have been used to assess the space/time variability of coastal plumes and run-off in the Mediterranean Sea. A time series of 2645 scenes, collected by the CZCS from 1979 to 1985, was processed to apply sensor calibration algorithms, correct for atmospheric contamination, and derive chlorophyll-like pigment concentration. Individual images, remapped on a 1-km² pixel grid, were generated for each available day, and then mean values calculated pixel by pixel to form monthly, seasonal and annual composites. The results obtained must be taken with caution, due to the CZCS limitations in the quantitative assessment of bio-optical pigments when high concentrations of dissolved organics or suspended sediments are present, e.g. along littorals or within plumes. Marked differences appear in the distribution of water constituents between coastal zones and open sea, northern and southern near-coastal areas, western and eastern sub-basins. The oligotrophic character of the basin contrasts with areas of high concentration related to river plumes—Ebro (Ebre), Po, Rhone, Nile—, coastal run-off patterns, and persistent mesoscale features (e.g. coastal filaments and eddies). Seasonal variability appears to be high, with higher concentrations occurring over most of the basin in the cold season, when climatic conditions are favourable to coastal run-off and vertical mixing. Atmospheric forcing (wind and rainfall over continental margins) could play an important role in establishing the observed space/time distribution of water constituents. The impact of continental interactions (fluvial and coastal run-off), or that of exchanges between coastal zone and open sea, could have paramount influence on the biogeochemical fluxes in the entire basin.     

Towards a common Mediterranean framework for beach nourishment projects

Integrated Coastal Zone Management as a strategy for achieving conservation and sustainable multiple use of the coastal zone includes various types of management initiatives. Due to natural phenomena such as tides and winds and to social and economic activities, coastal areas undergo transformation. Coastal erosion and the disappearance of beaches as a result of wrong planning decisions and lack of effective legislation are among the most damaging effects and to reverse them requires application of a series of engineering techniques. Beach nourishment projects as a way towards shore protection and utilization through recreational purposes in the Spanish and Italian coasts are noteworthy in this respect. In beach nourishment projects, the roles of various entities, both public and private, should be clearly indicated and in the evaluation and execution stage a series of questions should be answered for the successful completion of any nourishment project. Past projects in the Mediterranean and experiences from recent Italian projects in Anzio and Nettuno confirm this. For example, dredging of the entrance channel of the port of Anzio enabled middle-sized ferryboats once again to enter the port (which had not been possible before). This will in turn increase the tourism potential of the town. Nourishment of two beaches at these sites prevented further erosion and provided more area for recreational purposes. Expected economic contribution of beach nourishments to the regional authority was estimated for Nettuno and Anzio; the resulting theoretical payback period was found to be 3 yr for the former and 15 yr for the latter.     

Towards a Coastal Area Management Act for the Russian Federation

Coastal area management should be considered as an element of a more general philosophy—that of natural resource management—which is in the process of replacing the purely ‘protection of the environment’ approach which was dominated most of the 20th century. Specific legislation on coastal management has been adopted by many countries, and today steps have been taken to acumulate all experience accumulated and to harmonize legal regulations on the international level. For the Russian Federation, formerly the Soviet Union, with an enormous sea-shore line to cope with, it is a new experience to develop a concept and a legal regulation specifically tackling coastal area management. The draft of a legislative act on coastal area management reflects the attempts to find ways for harmonizing various economic, environmental and social interests in this huge area, encompassing relevant Russian legislation in force as well as international conventions and treaties, and taking into considerations and treatices, and taking into consideration foregin expereience in this field.     

Integrated coastal zone management in Italy: a gap between science and policy

This paper introduces the need, in Italian countries, of a real integration of scientific knowledge into coastal policy. Actually, in Italy, still exists a gap between Science and Policy, interfering the implementation of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) process, while there is no coordination between local, regional and national authorities. This lack of an overall strategy has induced some regions to adopt regional plans for the sustainable development of their coastal areas, to compensate the shortcomings of a national planning. Besides, along Italian coasts, there is a heavy landscape urbanization producing conditions of environmental decay and highlighting the risk of erosions in littoral areas. In this critical context, it is necessary to adopt an effective Integrated Coastal Zone Management policy, to connect ecosystem and environmental approaches with the social and economic development of coastal areas. So, in Italian landscape, it is necessary to integrate the national cultural heritage into coastal management, joining scientific and cultural issues. In this framework, ICZM process could play an important role connecting scientists and policy makers towards an effective integration for the social and economic growth of local people.     

Erosion risk levels at the NW Portuguese coast: the Douro mouth—Cape Mondego stretch

The entire northwestern coast of Portugal is undergoing severe erosion and there are several areas at high risk of erosion. Commonly considered as a problem—because it jeopardizes human development along the coast—erosion is indeed a natural process of sediment redistribution. This paper presents a brief analysis of erosion driving forces and the subsequent state of vulnerability that coastal segments between the mouth of the River Douro and Cape Mondego are facing. The paper also discusses erosion risk levels, low or high, and the subsequent questions whether there are populations, economical assets or natural habitats at risk and/or areas prone to coastal flooding. Main challenges and future trends along the study area are identified in the light of understanding the underlying causes of conflicts and what realistically can be achieved given the morphodynamics and hydrodynamic processes, human development established along this coastal segment and the existing policies.     

Application of a ‘bio-engineering’ technique to protect ghoramara island (Bay of Bengal) from severe erosion

Ghoramara Island is located ca. 150 km south of Kolkata, Bay of Bengal, India, in the Sundarban Delta complex. This sparsely populated island is suffering from severe coastal erosion and areal reduction for the last three decades, which results in the loss of major areas on the northwest coast. Both numerous households and a significant area of agricultural land and coastal stretches for fish drying have been lost. This has rendered thousands of people homeless as ‘environmental refugess’. In the present paper an attempt is made to study the erosion and accretion process through time series analysis using a GIS technique. Also, a study of remedial measures to protect the island using a ‘bio-engineering’ technique is reported in this paper. It has been shown that, in the absence of protection measures, the eastern shore will merge with the Indian mainland during the next 25 years, while the western part will be completely washed off.     

A GIS-based vulnerability assessment of coastal natural hazards,state of Pará, Brazil

Studies carried out in the NE coastal zone of the State of Pará (Brazil) have recorded, in the last 25 years, numerous evidence of natural impacts of the flood and erosion processes. As a consequence, diverse strategies and measures of population adaptation have been implemented but with limited success. Therefore, in order to subsidize the Coastal Zone Management Program of Pará, this paper aims to identify, assess and classify natural and socio-economic vulnerabilities of this coastal zone by means of a Geographical Information Systems (GIS)-based composite coastal vulnerability index (CVI). In spite of the data problems and shortcomings, using ESRI’s Arcview 3.2 program, the CVI score, to classify, weight and combine a number of 16 separate natural and socio-economic variables to create a single indicator provides a reliable measure of differences (5 classes) among regions and communities that are exposed to similar ranges of hazards. The results are presented in three maps referred to as Natural, Socioeconomic and Total Vulnerability. The confidence associated with the results obtained, the need to utilize another variables, and to frequently update the ones used already were analyzed and discussed.     

Coastal directories and beyond: providing multidisciplinary coastal zone resource information for resource management

Baseline resource information in an easily accessible form is a vital starting point for developing coastal zone management. On behalf of a wide-ranging group of organizations involved in the management of the U.K. maritime zone, the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) is compiling a series of 16 regional volumes. The volumes contain multi-disciplinary coastal zone resource information arranged in ten chapters under the general title ‘Coasts and Seas of the UK’. These volumes form part of a series of paper and electronic publications of coastal information being produced by JNCC’s Coastal Directories Project and are designed to meet the needs of planners and all others involved in decision-making and management of the coast.     

Coastal directories and beyond: Providing multidisciplinary coastal zone resource information for resource management

Baseline resource information in an easily accessible form is a vital starting point for developing coastal zone management. On behalf of a wide-ranging group of organizations involved in the management of the U.K. maritime zone, the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) is compiling a series of 16 regional volumes. The volumes contain multidisciplinary coastal zone resource information arranged in ten chapters under the general title ‘Coasts and Seas of the UK’. These volumes form part of a series of paper and electronic publications of coastal information being produced by JNCC's Coastal Directories Project and are designed to meet the needs of planners and all others involved in decision-making and management of the coast.     

New methodological strategies for detecting bacterial indicators

The development of monitoring strategies for the early warning of seawater pollution, with particular reference to faecal and hydrocarbon contamination, has been the specific goal of research carried out within the Cluster 10-SAM (Advanced Systems for Coastal Marine Monitoring) Project, funded by the Italian Ministry for University and Scientific Research. Advanced analytical approaches have been designed and applied to detect bacterial species that have been selected as potential indicators of pollution in seawater samples. We report the results obtained using the fluorescent antibody and enzymatic assays for the detection of Escherichia coli, and a real-time PCR protocol for monitoring marine areas for hydrocarbon pollution. Immunofluorescence and enzymatic methods revealed the occurrence of different faecal pollution levels, reaching 10⁵ E. coli cells 100 ml^?1 in the Straits of Messina. Real-time PCR results corresponded to the different degree of oil pollution of the analysed samples. The specificity and speed make these methods promising for the detection and evaluation of marine pollution.     

A novelty coastal susceptibility assessment method: application to Valdelagrana area (SW Spain)

The main aim of this paper is to present a new methodology to determine coastal susceptibility to erosion and flooding processes by means of an index-based method. The proposed indices take into account physical parameters, such as dune and beach geomorphologic characteristics, shoreline evolution, local significant wave height and relative run-up. The coastal susceptibility has been estimated by elaboration of spatial input data into a GIS environment. The method has been tested in Valdelagrana area, a sandy spit located in SW Spain. The spit includes several morpho-sedimentary environments: sandy beach, discontinuous embryo dunes and foredunes, mud flats and wide areas of vegetated salt marshes. The Northernmost sector is densely urbanized whilst the rest is part of a natural protected area belonging to the Bahía de Cádiz Natural Park. The results obtained showed how the Southern part of the spit presented a high susceptibility due to an elevated erosion rate and the presence of low and discontinuous dune ridges.     

Interactions between water and land in The Netherlands

The Netherlands are one of the most densely populated coastal countries in the world and there is only limited space for living, working, transport and recreation, while there is also the need to preserve and expand valuable natural habitats. In order to solve many existing and future conflicts of interest, and in order to create ‘added value’, strategies are developed to optimize the use of water-land systems. The principle of ‘building with nature’ is applied in order to integrate land in sea and water in land in such a way that future generations will be able to use coastal resources in a sustainable way, including a minimal effort to maintain the coastline and the promotion of a multiple-use system. The concept of Integrated multifunctional sustainable coastal zone development is introduced. This concept deals with a balanced approach to the lack of space for present and future coastal uses in relation to each other, to the hinterland, and to the sea. Flexible master plans are developed, taking into account many functions of the coastal zone, and facilitating adaptation to future developments—e.g. impacts of climate change and relative sea level rise. In this regard increasing the flexibility of the coastal zone is of vital importance. Large-scale coastal land reclamations in The Netherlands are dealt with, based on two different principles: (1) polder systems (low lying land reclamations surrounded and protected by dikes), (2) systems of ‘building with nature’—land reclamation protected by man-made foreshores, beaches and dunes. In the latter type new flexible dynamic-equilibrium coasts are created for many functions, while coastal vulnerability is reduced and a flexible coast is developed.     

Modelling of coastal vulnerability in the stretch between the beaches of Porto de Mós and Falésia, Algarve (Portugal)

Coastal systems are characterized by high geophysical and biophysical sensitivity as being their massive occupation a serious issue concerning their self-regulation. Worldwide coastal areas are exposed to problems such as coastal erosion, degradation and destruction of marine habitats, pollution and rising sea level. Thus, it is crucial to design models of coastal vulnerability assessment to ensure a better management of coastal areas. This study characterizes the vulnerability of the coastal stretch between the beaches of Porto de Mós and Falésia in the Algarve, corresponding to 52?km of the south coast of Portugal. The expansion of urban areas was modelled using a Cellular Automata (CA) based approach. Results show that 65% of the coastal stretch has high and very high vulnerability caused by both physical and human factors. Results further indicate that urban growth may interfere with the natural evolution of the coastal geomorphology. The scenario of urban expansion for the year 2015 highlights the need to develop effective urban planning processes to ensure a correct balance between the geophysical resilience of coastal systems and the promotion of the coastal sector as a strategic asset for the regional and national economy.     

Portuguese coastal zones and the new coastal management plans

Coastal zones in Portugal, as interface areas between land and sea, have problems related to the growing human pressure in terms of changes in land use associated with urban and industrial occupation, new accessibility (ports, motorways) and traffic flows, intensification of recreational use (beaches, water sports) and excessive fishing. Impacts include deterioration of water quality and sediments; alteration and degradation of natural habitats; new hydrodynamic situations; major landscape changes: and rapid changes in habits and way of life of the local populations and increased exposure of populations and assets to natural and induced risks (storms, accidents, spills, explosions). Plans for the Management of the Coastal Zone (POOC) have been developed and seven of them have been approved, while two similar plans are at a final stage of preparation. Together they cover the entire coast of Portugal. Their implementation and assessment could be a first step towards an integrated management of the Portuguese coastal zones. River Basin Management Plans (PBH) have been concluded and recently approved for the whole country. However, these plans do not consider estuarine systems and some other issues related to coastal systems. The National Water Plan (PNA) is under public presentation and discussion. Several ‘key messages’ are presented in this paper as a contribution for assessment of the proposals of this plan on issues related with coastal waters.     

Integrated shoreline management and tourism development on the cross-border World Heritage Site: A case study from the Curonian spit (Lithuania/Russia)

The varied and very dynamic landscape with a high biological diversity is a distinctive feature of the Curonian spit at the regional scale. Throughout the 20th century the main morphodynamic trend in the littoral of the Curonian spit was shoreline grading on the lagoon side, whereas on the marine side the increasing erosion at the foot of the spit, and increasing accretion at the head of the spit prevailed. The results of a discriminant analysis (Wilkes’ λ = 0.001626 and F = 29.267 when p < 0.001) show that sites with prevailing erosion, accretion and sediment input from the drifting dunes form regular inter-related spatial structures in the littoral with distinctive resulting discontinuities of the sediment drift along the lagoon coast. Dune littoral cells are characterized by Aeolian sediment input and distribution ‘down-drift’, (usually northwards) from the source. The most likely changes in the current development trends of the lagoon shore zone of the Curonian spit are related to expected climate changes and further slowing down of the dune drift. The probability of storms and ice-drift events, and their impact on coasts is expected to increase as a result of climate change. The dune advance will gradually slow down, and with it, the sand input to the coastal zone will decline. In this paper, we define integrated shoreline management as a system of long-term shoreline management measures, which is based on a littoral cell approach and aimed at harmonizing human activity in the coastal zone with the natural development of the shoreline. We propose an integrated management program for the lagoon shoreline of the Curonian spit, which is site-specific for each littoral cell as a coastal management unit. Drifting dunes and seaside beaches are the natural amenities, which are best known and best appreciated on the Curonian spit by 49% of the respondents representing the total Lithuanian population. A responsible tourism development should be considered as the key means for proper appreciation of the drifting dunes and natural coasts by society, which means to acknowledge and cherish the aesthetic and conservation values of dune and coastal landscapes of the Curonian spit as a World Heritage Site. There are at least two pre-conditions for this: (1) to provide visitors with sufficient information about diverse values and functions of the Curonian dunes and coasts within a broader regional and global heritage conservation context; (2) to enable tourists to enjoy the most impressive dune and coastal landscapes at close range. In this paper we propose to encourage active dune tourism, to reintroduce grazing into the Curonian dune areas, to restore and to preserve the most impressive landscapes of the highest white drifting dunes by bringing the blown out sand from the leeward foot of the dunes back to the crest artificially.     

Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Egypt: The Fuka-Matrouh project

Egyptian coastlines comprise more than 3000 km along the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The coastal area of Egypt is under severe and increasing pressure. After passing the law on the Environment (Law 4) in 1994, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was designated as the responsible agency to implement this law. In this respect, the EEAA formulates the general policy and prepares the necessary plans for the protection and promotion of the environment. Also, it follows up the implementation of such plans in coordination with competent administrative authorities. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is one of the items regulated and addressed by Law 4/94. A framework programme for ICZM in Egypt was issued in 1996. This paper presents the results of a pilot project financed by the Mediterranean Action Programme Coastal Area Management (CAMP), namely ‘Fuka-Matrouh-Egypt’ project, and implemented by the Priority Action Plan/Regional Activity Centre. It also presents the methodology followed in the study and the experience gained nationally that would lead to the sustainable development of the northwest Egyptian Coast.     

Management of the belgian coast: Opinions and solutions

Since the beginning of the 20th century the Belgian coast has undergone important changes of which an overview is presented here. To determine the view of the Belgian public on the Belgian coast and in order to obtain their opinions and solutions to the problems along the Belgian coast, a questionnaire survey was conducted with a total of 100 respondents divided into five groups, all active in the coastal zone. The five groups included (1) politicians on various levels of authority, (2) coastal entrepreneurs and business people, (3) naturalists and scientists, (4) coastal residents and (5) tourists. Coastal zone problems, as perceived by the different groups, and their solutions are discussed. Former municipalities, in particular, were held responsible for the current coastal problems. Most respondents were skeptic about the application of recent juridical instruments (e.g. the Dune Decree), the structural plans and their power to protect the remaining natural areas. The root of the problems seems to lie in lack of coordination and communication between different authorities responsible for the coastal zone.     

Dynamic preservation of the coastline in the Netherlands

In 1990, the Government and Parliament of the Netherlands decided on a new national policy for coastal defence. To ensure the enduring safety of the low-lying polders as well as the sustainable preservation of the coastal dunes, it was decided to maintain the coastline in its 1990 position. The main method for coastline preservation in the Netherlands is beach nourishment. Since 1991, approximately 7 million m³ of sand is added to the Dutch beaches annually. From an evaluation study of sand nourishment projects it is concluded that nourishment is an effective and efficient method to preserve the coastline. The evaluation study also proves that nourishment projects should be ‘tailor-made’, taking the local morphological and hydraulic conditions into account. The first results of an experimental shoreface nourishment are discussed. The choice for nourishment as the principal method to combat erosion is well in line with the intention to restore the natural dynamics of the dune-coast in the Netherlands. The key probably is a less strict policy with regard to the maintenance of the foredunes. Plans for the development of typical coastal features such as slufters^*, wash-overs, blow-outs and mobile dunes are currently under discussion. A slufter is a breakthrough in the first dune-ridge whereby the sea invades former dune slacks or beach plains situated behind the duneridge. In this way a tidal marsh is formed within the dune zone.