Reconnecting to the Biosphere

Humanity has emerged as a major force in the operation of the biosphere, with a significant imprint on the Earth System, challenging social-ecological resilience. This new situation calls for a fundamental shift in perspectives, world views, and institutions. Human development and progress must be reconnected to the capacity of the biosphere and essential ecosystem services to be sustained. Governance challenges include a highly interconnected and faster world, cascading social-ecological interactions and planetary boundaries that create vulnerabilities but also opportunities for social-ecological change and transformation. Tipping points and thresholds highlight the importance of understanding and managing resilience. New modes of flexible governance are emerging. A central challenge is to reconnect these efforts to the changing preconditions for societal development as active stewards of the Earth System. We suggest that the Millennium Development Goals need to be reframed in such a planetary stewardship context combined with a call for a new social contract on global sustainability. The ongoing mind shift in human relations with Earth and its boundaries provides exciting opportunities for societal development in collaboration with the biosphere--a global sustainability agenda for humanity.     

Bioenergy to save the world

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Following to the 2006 climate summit, the European Union formally set the goal of limiting global warming to 2 degrees Celsius. But even today, climate change is already affecting people and ecosystems. Examples are melting glaciers and polar ice, reports about thawing permafrost areas, dying coral reefs, rising sea levels, changing ecosystems and fatal heat periods. Within the last 150 years, CO2 levels rose from 280 ppm to currently over 400 ppm. If we continue on our present course, CO2 equivalent levels could approach 600 ppm by 2035. However, if CO2 levels are not stabilized at the 450-550 ppm level, the consequences could be quite severe. Hence, if we do not act now, the opportunity to stabilise at even 550 ppm is likely to slip away. Long-term stabilisation will require that CO2 emissions ultimately be reduced to more than 80% below current levels. This will require major changes in how we operate. RESULTS: Reducing greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels seems to be the most promising approach to counterbalance the dramatic climate changes we would face in the near future. It is clear since the Kyoto protocol that the availability of fossil carbon resources will not match our future requirements. Furthermore, the distribution of fossil carbon sources around the globe makes them an even less reliable source in the future. We propose to screen crop and non-crop species for high biomass production and good survival on marginal soils as well as to produce mutants from the same species by chemical mutagenesis or related methods. These plants, when grown in adequate crop rotation, will provide local farming communities with biomass for the fermentation in decentralized biogas reactors, and the resulting nitrogen rich manure can be distributed on the fields to improve the soil. DISCUSSION: Such an approach will open new economic perspectives to small farmers, and provide a clever way to self sufficient and sustainable rural development. Together with the present economic reality, where energy and raw material prices have drastically increased over the last decade, they necessitate the development and the establishment of alternative concepts. CONCLUSIONS: Biotechnology is available to apply fast breeding to promising energy plant species. It is important that our valuable arable land is preserved for agriculture. The opportunity to switch from low-income agriculture to biogas production may convince small farmers to adhere to their business and by that preserve the identity of rural communities. PERSPECTIVES: Overall, biogas is a promising alternative for the future, because its resource base is widely available, and single farms or small local cooperatives might start biogas plant operation.     

Climate Policy to Defeat the Green Paradox

Carbon dioxide emissions have accelerated since the signing of the Kyoto Protocol. This discouraging development may partly be blamed on accelerating world growth and on lags in policy instruments. However, it also raises serious question concerning whether policies to reduce CO₂ emissions are as effective as generally assumed. In recent years, a considerable number of studies have identified various feedback mechanisms of climate policies that often erode, and occasionally reinforce, their effectiveness. These studies generally focus on a few feedback mechanisms at a time, without capturing the entire effect. Partial accounting of policy feedbacks is common in many climate scenarios. The IPCC, for example, only accounts for direct leakage and rebound effects. This article attempts to map the aggregate effects of different types of climate policy feedback mechanisms in a cohesive framework. Controlling feedback effects is essential if the policy measures are to make any difference on a global level. A general conclusion is that aggregate policy feedback mechanisms tend to make current climate policies much less effective than is generally assumed. In fact, various policy measures involve a definite risk of ‘backfiring’ and actually increasing CO₂ emissions. This risk is particularly pronounced once effects of climate policies on the pace of innovation in climate technology are considered. To stand any chance of controlling carbon emissions, it is imperative that feedback mechanisms are integrated into emission scenarios, targets for emission reduction and implementation of climate policy. In many cases, this will reduce the scope for subsidies to renewable energy sources, but increase the scope for other measures such as schemes to return carbon dioxide to the ground and to mitigate emissions of greenhouse gases from wetlands and oceans. A framework that incorporates policy feedback effects necessitates rethinking the design of the national and regional emission targets. This leads us to a new way of formulating emission targets that include feedback effects, the global impact target. Once the full climate policy feedback mechanisms are accounted for, there are probably only three main routes in climate policy that stand a chance of mitigating global warming: (a) returning carbon to the ground, (b) technological leaps in zero-emission energy technology that make it profitable to leave much carbon in the ground even in Annex II countries and (c) international agreements that make it more profitable to leave carbon in the ground or in forests.     

Estimation of dioxin risk to Japanese from the past to the future

The transport processes of seventeen 2,3,7,8-chlorinated congeners of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) from their major sources to humans were modeled to estimate the time course, from the past to the future, of the human health risk to the Japanese population. The comparison between measured and estimated values showed that the present modeling approach represented the background levels of congeners in the environment, daily intake, and body burden reasonably well, except for in the case of 2,3,7,8-TCDF. Although PCDD/Fs in herbicides have contributed greatly to the daily intake and body burden to the Japanese population in the past, the main sources of the present intake and burden of PCDD/Fs is estimated to be incinerators. The margin of exposure (MOE) for the risk of morphological reproductive alteration in female offspring exposed prenatally was calculated based on the estimated maternal body burden. The results indicated that the MOE values were in the single digits, implying that these values may not be sufficiently large to guarantee the safety of female offspring of mothers born in the 1950s, whereas the MOE values for female offspring born in and after the latter half of the 1990s may be sufficiently large to guarantee safety.     

Geologic emissions of methane to the atmosphere

The atmospheric methane budget is commonly defined assuming that major sources derive from the biosphere (wetlands, rice paddies, animals, termites) and that fossil, radiocarbon-free CH4 emission is due to and mediated by anthropogenic activity (natural gas production and distribution, and coal mining). However, the amount of radiocarbon-free CH4 in the atmosphere, estimated at approximately 20% of atmospheric CH4, is higher than the estimates from statistical data of CH4 emission from fossil fuel related anthropogenic sources. This work documents that significant amounts of "old" methane, produced within the Earth crust, can be released naturally into the atmosphere through gas permeable faults and fractured rocks. Major geologic emissions of methane are related to hydrocarbon production in sedimentary basins (biogenic and thermogenic methane) and, subordinately, to inorganic reactions (Fischer-Tropsch type) in geothermal systems. Geologic CH4 emissions include diffuse fluxes over wide areas, or microseepage, on the order of 10(0)-10(2) mg m(-2) day(-1), and localised flows and gas vents, on the order of 10(2) t y(-1), both on land and on the seafloor. Mud volcanoes producing flows of up to 10(3) t y(-1) represent the largest visible expression of geologic methane emission. Several studies have indicated that methanotrophic consumption in soil may be insufficient to consume all leaking geologic CH4 and positive fluxes into the atmosphere can take place in dry or seasonally cold environments. Unsaturated soils have generally been considered a major sink for atmospheric methane, and never a continuous, intermittent, or localised source to the atmosphere. Although geologic CH4 sources need to be quantified more accurately, a preliminary global estimate indicates that there are likely more than enough sources to provide the amount of methane required to account for the suspected missing source of fossil CH4.     

A metabolomics based approach to assessing the toxicity of the polyaromatic hydrocarbon pyrene to the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus

The biochemical response of the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus to pyrene exposure was assessed using 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and pattern recognition techniques. Both analytical methods enabled the establishment of reproducible metabolic profiles. NMR analysis identified a total of 32 metabolites while GC-MS identified 51. The results demonstrate that not only is pyrene toxic to L. rubellus, but that alterations in its normal metabolic profile could be observed even when individuals were exposed to concentrations of 40mg kg(-1): a pollution level that is both below the concentration previously found to significantly reduce reproduction and within the range of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) found on some contaminated sites. Pyrene was found to cause a dose dependant decrease in lactate and the concentrations of the saturated fatty acids tetradecanoic, hexadecanoic and octadecanoic acid and an increase in production of the amino acids alanine, leucine, valine, isoleucine, lysine, tyrosine and methionine. It is proposed that this indicates impaired glucose metabolism, with an associated increase in fatty acid metabolism and changes in TCA cycle intermediates. This study demonstrates the versatility of metabolomics as a tool to monitor toxicity in the environment as opposed to utilising model species studied in a laboratory setting. Since it is a non-carcinogenic PAH, we propose that the metabolic changes observed in worms may reflect the non-specific toxic effects of pyrene as a typical, non-polar organic compound.     

解决中国农村环境保护信息非对称性的方法探索

基于对世界银行项目——“中国乡镇工业企业环境行为研究”的子项目“乡镇工业企业污染控制报告制度研究”在江苏省丹阳市的实施过程的研究，发现污染控制报告会在乡镇环境管理中有着良好的社会效益、经济效益和环境效益，不失为一种解决农村环境保护信息非对称性的优选方法。     

A methodology to establish the morphology of ambient aerosols

The morphology of ambient particulate matter (PM) is an important characteristic that seldom is measured and reported. A study was performed to determine the viability of a method to establish the distribution of shapes and the fractal dimensions of aggregates of ambient aerosols. Particles of PM with aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 microm (PM2.5) were captured on different days via size-independent electrostatic precipitation at two sites in St. Louis and examined in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Nonvolatile particles between 0.1 and 2.5 microm were readily identified via SEM. Particle shapes were classified as fibrous, spherical, agglomerated, or "other." A computer program using the nested-squares algorithm was developed and used to determine the fractal dimensions of the aggregates. More particles were collected at the St. Louis-Midwest Supersite on June 14, 2002, than were collected on the Washington University campus loading dock on May 31, 2002, but the campus samples had a higher percentage of aggregates. On one day of sampling at the Supersite, the aggregate fraction was highest in the morning (14.3% between 7:00 and 9:00 a.m.) and steadily declined during the day (1.3% between 5:00 and 7:00 p.m.). The fractal dimensions of the aerosols were 1.65 in the morning (7:00-9:00 a.m.), decreased to 1.49 (11:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m.), and then increased to 1.87 (5:00-7:00 p.m.). The results show that the fractal dimension is not a static value and that ambient aerosols are not perfectly spherical.     

Use of the MicroResp™ method to assess pollution-induced community tolerance to metals for lotic biofilms

Understanding the ecological status of aquatic ecosystems and the impact of anthropogenic contamination requires correlating exposure to toxicants with impact on biological communities. Several tools exist for assessing the ecotoxicity of substances, but there is still a need for new tools that are ecologically relevant and easy to use. We have developed a protocol based on the substrate-induced respiration of a river biofilm community, using the MicroResp™ technique, in a pollution-induced community tolerance approach. The results show that MicroResp™ can be used in bioassays to assess the toxicity toward biofilm communities of a wide range of metals (Cu, Zn, Cd, Ag, Ni, Fe, Co, Al and As). Moreover, a community-level physiological profile based on the mineralization of different carbon substrates was established. Finally, the utility of MicroResp™ was confirmed in an in-situ study showing gradient of tolerance to copper correlated to a contamination gradient of this metal in a small river.     

Ammonia in the environment: from ancient times to the present

Recent research on atmospheric ammonia has made good progress in quantifying sources/sinks and environmental impacts. This paper reviews the achievements and places them in their historical context. It considers the role of ammonia in the development of agricultural science and air chemistry, showing how these arose out of foundations in 18th century chemistry and medieval alchemy, and then identifies the original environmental sources from which the ancients obtained ammonia. Ammonia is revealed as a compound of key human interest through the centuries, with a central role played by sal ammoniac in alchemy and the emergence of modern science. The review highlights how recent environmental research has emphasized volatilization sources of ammonia. Conversely, the historical records emphasize the role of high-temperature sources, including dung burning, coal burning, naturally burning coal seams and volcanoes. Present estimates of ammonia emissions from these sources are based on few measurements, which should be a future priority.     

Losses to the environment from the multilevel cycle of anthropogenic lead

As a component of a multi-level study of the anthropogenic lead cycle for year 2000 (52 countries, 8 regions, and the planet), we have estimated the lead flows in seven emission streams: tailings, slag, fabrication and manufacturing, dissipation from use, hibernation, landfilling, and dispersion following product discard. For every 1 kg of lead put into end use, 0.5 kg is lost to the environment, largely due to landfilling and dissipation from use. From the standpoint of the receiving media, 1/3 of the losses are to uncontained solids on land and 48% of the losses are to containment facilities on land. On a country basis, the largest losses occur in the United States and China, which between them are responsible for about 32% of total global lead losses. On a per capita basis, the highest lead losses occurred in the United Kingdom, Belgium-Luxembourg, and Ireland.     

Attempts to probe the ozone layer and the ultraviolet-B levels of the past

To get a proper perspective on the current status of atmospheric ozone, which protects the biosphere from ultraviolet-B (UV-B; 280-315 nm) radiation, it would be of value to know how ozone and UV-B radiation have varied in the past. The record of worldwide ozone monitoring goes back only a few decades, and the record of reliable UV-B measurements is even shorter. Here we review indirect methods to assess their status further back in time. These include variations in the Sun's emission and how these affect the atmosphere, changes in the Earth's orbit, geologic imprints of atmospheric ozone, effects of catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, biological proxies of UV-B radiation, the spectral signature of terrestrial ozone in old recordings of star spectra, and the modeling of UV-B irradiance from ozone data and meteorological recordings. Although reliable reconstructions do not yet extend far into the past, there is some hope for future progress.     

鸟粪石结晶沉淀法处理氨氮废水的应用研究

论述了鸟粪石的形成机理、形成的影响因素。在废水处理中采用鸟粪石沉淀法脱氮，具有氨氮去除率高、反应速度快、污泥体积小的优点，同时可以回收氨氮。作为缓释肥，具有良好的经济效益。重点介绍了鸟粪石沉淀法处理氨氮废水目前的研究进展，并探讨了该技术在今后的研究趋势。     

Uncertainties in predicted ozone concentrations due to input uncertainties for the UAM-V photochemical grid model applied to the July 1995 OTAG domain

The photochemical grid model, UAM-V, has been used by regulatory agencies to make decisions concerning emissions controls, based on studies of the July 1995 ozone episode in the eastern US. The current research concerns the effect of the uncertainties in UAM-V input variables (emissions, initial and boundary conditions, meteorological variables, and chemical reactions) on the uncertainties in UAM-V ozone predictions. Uncertainties of 128 input variables have been estimated and most range from about 20% to a factor of two. 100 Monte Carlo runs, each with new resampled values of each of the 128 input variables, have been made for given sets of median emissions assumptions. Emphasis is on the maximum hourly-averaged ozone concentration during the 12–14 July 1995 period. The distribution function of the 100 Monte Carlo predicted domain-wide maximum ozone concentrations is consistently close to log-normal with a 95% uncertainty range extending over plus and minus a factor of about 1.6 from the median. Uncertainties in ozone predictions are found to be most strongly correlated with uncertainties in the NO₂ photolysis rate. Also important are wind speed and direction, relative humidity, cloud cover, and biogenic VOC emissions. Differences in median predicted maximum ozone concentrations for three alternate emissions control assumptions were investigated, with the result that (1) the suggested year-2007 emissions changes would likely be effective in reducing concentrations from those for the year-1995 actual emissions, that (2) an additional 50% NO_x emissions reductions would likely be effective in further reducing concentrations, and that (3) an additional 50% VOC emission reductions may not be effective in further reducing concentrations.     

Opening access to the black box: The need for reporting on the global phosphorus supply chain

Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient in agriculture; however, lack of reporting makes its supply chain a black box. By using literature synthesis on the P challenge, we identify four areas where the reporting process is problematic: P reserves and resources; P losses along the supply chain; P externalities; and access to data. We find that in these areas, the reporting system is inconsistent, inaccurate, incomplete, fragmented and non-transparent. We use systems analysis to discuss implications of reporting on the sustainability of the P supply chain. We find that reporting is essential for the achievement of global P governance and the human right to adequate food. It can also inform decision makers and other impacted stakeholders on policies on agriculture, food security, pollution and international conflict. An improved P reporting process also allows a better evaluation of global sustainability commitments such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.     

Constraints to implementing international agreements: the case of the Montreal Protocol in Botswana

This study addresses the difficulties surrounding effective implementation of the Montreal Protocol in Botswana and provides a general understanding of how best we might advise policy makers when implementing international agreements in the developing world. A questionnaire survey administered to both the formal and informal users of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs) revealed that disseminated information on ODSs has little effect on choices that users make about refrigerant gases and this information is skewed in favor of the conventional users of ODSs. As a result, annual statistics of ODS use are probably underestimated. Difficulties exist in changing from old to new technologies in the short term due to high costs associated with the change over. The infrastructure to recover gases and to dispose of unusable hardware is absent or inadequate. Solutions to these difficulties include a comprehensive policy that caters for all users of ODSs and the integration of economic and environmental aspirations.     

The potential future contribution of shipping to acidification of the Baltic Sea

International regulation of the emission of acidic sulphur and nitrogen oxides from commercial shipping has focused on the risks to human health, with little attention paid to the consequences for the marine environment. The introduction of stricter regulations in northern Europe has led to substantial investment in scrubbers that absorb the sulphur oxides in a counterflow of seawater. This paper examines the consequences of smokestack and scrubber release of acidic oxides in the Baltic Sea according to a range of scenarios for the coming decades. While shipping is projected to become a major source of strong acid deposition to the Baltic Sea by 2050, the long-term effect on the pH and alkalinity is projected to be significantly smaller than estimated from previous scoping studies. A significant contribution to this difference is the efficient export of surface water acidification to the North Sea on a timescale of 15–20 years.     

The Variability of Dustfall Analysis Due to the Container and the Collecting Fluid

As part of their air pollution control program, many communities monitor the coarse dust content of the atmosphere by simply exposing an open vessel to the atmosphere for an extended period of time. The material collected and retained by a fluid layer is then weighed and chemically analyzed. In this study a statistical approach was used to separate the real and significant effects of different container-fluid combinations on both the magnitude of dustfall and its composition.     

Equilibrium partitioning theory to predict the sediment toxicity of the anionic surfactant C(12)-2-LAS to Corophium volutator

The study of the effect of the sorption of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) on the bioavailability to marine benthic organisms is essential to refine the environmental risk assessment of these compounds. According to the equilibrium partitioning theory (EqP), the effect concentration in water-only exposure will be similar to the effect concentration in the sediment pore water. In this work, sorption and desorption experiments with two marine sediments were carried out using the compound C₁₂-2-LAS. The effect of the sediment sorption on the toxicity of benthic organisms was studied in water-only and in sediment bioassays with the marine mud shrimp Corophium volutator. In addition, three common spiking methods were tested for its application in the toxicity tests, as well as the stability of the surfactant during the water-only and sediment-water test duration. LC50 values obtained from water-only exposure showed a good correspondence with the pore water concentrations calculated from the sorption and desorption isotherms in the spiked sediments.