Untangling the proximate causes and underlying drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Myanmar

Political transitions often trigger substantial environmental changes. In particular, deforestation can result from the complex interplay among the components of a system—actors, institutions, and existing policies—adapting to new opportunities. A dynamic conceptual map of system components is particularly useful for systems in which multiple actors, each with different worldviews and motivations, may be simultaneously trying to alter different facets of the system, unaware of the impacts on other components. In Myanmar, a global biodiversity hotspot with the largest forest area in mainland Southeast Asia, ongoing political and economic reforms are likely to change the dynamics of deforestation drivers. A fundamental conceptual map of these dynamics is therefore a prerequisite for interventions to reduce deforestation. We used a system‐dynamics approach and causal‐network analysis to determine the proximate causes and underlying drivers of forest loss and degradation in Myanmar from 1995 to 2016 and to articulate the linkages among them. Proximate causes included infrastructure development, timber extraction, and agricultural expansion. These were stimulated primarily by formal agricultural, logging, mining, and hydropower concessions and economic investment and social issues relating to civil war and land tenure. Reform of land laws, the link between natural resource extraction and civil war, and the allocation of agricultural concessions will influence the extent of future forest loss and degradation in Myanmar. The causal‐network analysis identified priority areas for policy interventions, for example, creating a public registry of land‐concession holders to deter corruption in concession allocation. We recommend application of this analytical approach to other countries, particularly those undergoing political transition, to inform policy interventions to reduce forest loss and degradation.     

Effects of Reduced-Impact Logging on Fish Assemblages in Central Amazonia

Abstract: In Amazonia reduced‐impact logging, which is meant to reduce environmental disturbance by controlling stem‐fall directions and minimizing construction of access roads, has been applied to large areas containing thousands of streams. We investigated the effects of reduced‐impact logging on environmental variables and the composition of fish in forest streams in a commercial logging concession in central Amazonia, Amazonas State, Brazil. To evaluate short‐term effects, we sampled 11 streams before and after logging in one harvest area. We evaluated medium‐term effects by comparing streams in 11 harvest areas logged 1–8 years before the study with control streams in adjacent areas. Each sampling unit was a 50‐m stream section. The tetras Pyrrhulina brevis and Hemigrammus cf. pretoensis had higher abundances in plots logged ≥3 years before compared with plots logged <3 years before. The South American darter (Microcharacidium eleotrioides) was less abundant in logged plots than in control plots. In the short term, the overall fish composition did not differ two months before and immediately after reduced‐impact logging. Temperature and pH varied before and after logging, but those differences were compatible with normal seasonal variation. In the medium term, temperature and cover of logs were lower in logged plots. Differences in ordination scores on the basis of relative fish abundance between streams in control and logged areas changed with time since logging, mainly because some common species increased in abundance after logging. There was no evidence of species loss from the logging concession, but differences in log cover and ordination scores derived from relative abundance of fish species persisted even after 8 years. For Amazonian streams, reduced‐impact logging appears to be a viable alternative to clear‐cut practices, which severely affect aquatic communities. Nevertheless, detailed studies are necessary to evaluated subtle long‐term effects.     

Impacts of Roads, Hunting, and Habitat Alteration on Nocturnal Mammals in African Rainforests

Abstract:  Nocturnal mammals are poorly studied in Central Africa, a region experiencing dramatic increases in logging, roads, and hunting activity. In the rainforests of southern Gabon, we used spotlighting surveys to estimate abundances of nocturnal mammal species and guilds at varying distances from forest roads and between hunted and unhunted treatments (comparing a 130-km² oil concession that was nearly free of hunting, with nearby areas outside the concession that had moderate hunting pressure). At each of 12 study sites that were evenly divided between hunted and unhunted areas, we established standardized 1-km transects along road verges and at 50, 300, and 600 m from the road. We then repeatedly surveyed mammals at each site during 2006. Hunting had few apparent effects on this assemblage. Nevertheless, the species richness and often the abundance of nocturnal primates, smaller ungulates, and carnivores were significantly depressed within approximately 30 m of roads. Scansorial rodents increased in abundance in hunted forests, possibly in response to habitat changes caused by logging or nearby swidden farming. In multiple-regression models many species and guilds were significantly influenced by forest-canopy and understory cover, both of which are altered by logging and by certain abiotic variables. In general, nocturnal species, many of which are arboreal or relatively small in size (<10 kg), were less strongly influenced by hunting and more strongly affected by human-induced changes in forest structure than were larger mammal species in our study area.     

Trade liberalization, corruption, and environmental policy formation: theory and evidence

This study explores the linkages between trade policy, corruption, and environmental policy. We begin by presenting a theoretical model that produces several testable predictions, including: (i) the effect of trade liberalization on the stringency of environmental policy depends on the level of corruption; and (ii) corruption reduces environmental policy stringency. Using panel data from a mix of developed and developing countries from 1982 to 1992, we find evidence that supports these conjectures. We view these results as representing an attempt at understanding the myriad of complex relationships that exist in an open economy.     

Antipoaching standards in onshore hydrocarbon concessions drawn from a Central African case study

Unsustainable hunting outside protected areas is threatening tropical biodiversity worldwide and requires conservationists to engage increasingly in antipoaching activities. Following the example of ecocertified logging companies, we argue that other extractive industries managing large concessions should engage in antipoaching activities as part of their environmental management plans. Onshore hydrocarbon concessions should also adopt antipoaching protocols as a standard because they represent a biodiversity threat comparable to logging. We examined the spatiotemporal patterns of small‐ and large‐mammal poaching in an onshore oil concession in Gabon, Central Africa, with a Bayesian occupancy model based on signs of poaching collected from 2010 to 2015 on antipoaching patrols. Patrol locations were initially determined based on local intelligence and past patrol successes (adaptive management) and subsequently with a systematic sampling of the concession. We generated maps of poaching probability in the concession and determined the temporal trends of this threat over 5 years. The spatiotemporal patterns of large‐ and small‐mammal poaching differed throughout the concession, and likely these groups will need different management strategies. By elucidating the relationship between site‐specific sampling effort and detection probability, the Bayesian method allowed us to set goals for future antipoaching patrols. Our results indicate that a combination of systematic sampling and adaptive management data is necessary to infer spatiotemporal patterns with the statistical method we used. On the basis of our case study, we recommend hydrocarbon companies interested in implementing efficient antipoaching activities in their onshore concessions to lay the foundation of long‐needed industry standards by: adequately measuring antipoaching effort; mixing adaptive management and balanced sampling; setting goals for antipoaching effort; pairing patrols with large‐mammal monitoring; supporting antipoaching patrols across the landscape; restricting access to their concessions; performing random searches for bushmeat and mammal products at points of entry; controlling urban and agricultural expansion; supporting bushmeat alternatives; and supporting land‐use planning.     

Bird species and traits associated with logged and unlogged forest in Borneo.

The ecological consequences of logging have been and remain a focus of considerable debate. In this study, we assessed bird species composition within a logging concession in Central Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo. Within the study area (approximately 196 km2) a total of 9747 individuals of 177 bird species were recorded. Our goal was to identify associations between species traits and environmental variables. This can help us to understand the causes of disturbance and predict whether species with given traits will persist under changing environmental conditions. Logging, slope position, and a number of habitat structure variables including canopy cover and liana abundance were significantly related to variation in bird composition. In addition to environmental variables, spatial variables also explained a significant amount of variation. However, environmental variables, particularly in relation to logging, were of greater importance in structuring variation in composition. Environmental change following logging appeared to have a pronounced effect on the feeding guild and size class structure but there was little evidence of an effect on restricted range or threatened species although certain threatened species were adversely affected. For example, species such as the terrestrial insectivore Argusianus argus and the hornbill Buceros rhinoceros, both of which are threatened, were rare or absent in recently logged forest. In contrast, undergrowth insectivores such as Orthotomus atrogularis and Trichastoma rostratum were abundant in recently logged forest and rare in unlogged forest. Logging appeared to have the strongest negative effect on hornbills, terrestrial insectivores, and canopy bark-gleaning insectivores while moderately affecting canopy foliage-gleaning insectivores and frugivores, raptors, and large species in general. In contrast, undergrowth insectivores responded positively to logging while most understory guilds showed little pronounced effect. Despite the high species richness of logged forest, logging may still have a negative impact on extant diversity by adversely affecting key ecological guilds. The sensitivity of hornbills in particular to logging disturbance may be expected to alter rainforest dynamics by seriously reducing the effective seed dispersal of associated tree species. However, logged forest represents an increasingly important habitat for most bird species and needs to be protected from further degradation. Biodiversity management within logging concessions should focus on maintaining large areas of unlogged forest and mitigating the adverse effects of logging on sensitive groups of species.     

Corruption, political competition and environmental policy

This paper examines the interplay between corruption, political competition, environmental policy and environmental outcomes. An important feature of the model, which has been neglected in the existing literature, is that corruption may occur at different levels of government, such as the payment of bribes to politicians who determine policies, or bureaucrats who administer environmental regulations. We analyse the relationship between political competition and environmental outcomes in a model of stratified corruption and identify the benefits and limits of political competition. Our results suggest that while political competition may yield policy improvements, it cannot eliminate corruption at all levels of government.     

Environmentally Sensitive Productivity Analysis of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Industry, 1959-1994: An Input Distance Function Approach

This study employs a parametric input distance function that incorporates both desirable and undesirable outputs to provide a more complete representation of the production technology from which environmentally sensitive productivity and efficiency measures can be generated. This framework also generates pollution abatement cost estimates that are useful for policy making. An input-based Malmquist index of productivity growth that appropriately credits the producer not only for increases in marketable or desirable outputs but also for the production of improved environmental quality through pollution abatement activities is derived from the input distance function. The method was applied to time series data from the Canadian pulp and paper industry. Our shadow price estimates indicate that the marginal cost to producers of pollution control has been rising. The main conclusion of this study is that productivity improvement, from the social viewpoint, has been stronger than conventional measures would suggest.     

Evaluation of alternative forest system management policies the case of the spruce budworm in New Brunswick

A major difficulty in choosing a forest management policy that regulates yearly spraying and logging levels is the fact that such a choice involves comparisons among risky alternatives. Practical and theoretical constraints often make the specification of a utility function for the system infeasible. This paper demonstrates that by making reasonable and easily verifiable assumptions about some properties of preference profiles of participants in the system, it is possible to produce an effective algorithm for forest policy evaluation. The method proposed and applied to the case of the New Brunswick forests consists of: (1) construction of a forest simulation to generate policy contingent distributions of outcomes, and (2) employment of stochastic dominance to identify a nondominated set of policies.     

Achieving environmental goals in a world of trade and hidden action: the role of trade policies and eco-labeling

Importing countries often resort to trade policies and consumer actions in order to reduce negative environmental impacts of the products they consume. Traditionally, these policies were non-discriminatory, i.e., they treated all imports equally, without considering the actual damages caused by the product. More recently, there is a trend towards process-discriminatory policies which attempt to discriminate against environmentally unsound imports while encouraging sound alternatives. We develop a theoretical model of the consuming country's optimal trade policy, allowing for asymmetric information and costly monitoring, and analyze what type of policy is preferable under what conditions.     

Effect of Experimental Selective Logging on Tropical Butterflies

Abstract: I investigated the effects of an experimental selective logging regime on the assemblage of fruit-feeding butterflies in replicated experimental plots in the Chiquibul Forest, Belize. Over a 12-month period, I caught 1187 individuals of 49 species using fruit-baited traps. Selective logging at densities of six stems per ha 3 years before the study had little effect on butterfly species richness, the abundance of individual species, or the shape of species-abundance distributions. There was no tendency for taxa with restricted geographical ranges to be particularly sensitive to selective logging. Mark-release-recapture results suggest that most butterflies move relatively short distances, but that some dispersal occurs between plots separated by distances of ≥1 km. The apparent similarity of the fruit-feeding butterfly assemblage in selectively logged and unlogged forest contrasts with previous studies of butterfly assemblages but mirrors results for birds in the same plots. A possible explanation is the high frequency of natural disturbance—hurricanes and associated fires—in the Chiquibul Forest. The species present appear to be adapted to naturally disturbed habitats and may therefore be relatively unaffected by selective logging. Local studies of the effects of selective logging must take into account the history of natural and human disturbance in the study area. The results support the case for "ecological forestry," in which sustainable management regimes work within the limits imposed by natural disturbance.     

Amazonian deforestation and soil biodiversity

Clearance and perturbation of Amazonian forests are one of the greatest threats to tropical biodiversity conservation of our times. A better understanding of how soil communities respond to Amazonian deforestation is crucially needed to inform policy interventions that effectively protect biodiversity and the essential ecosystem services it provides. We assessed the impact of deforestation and ecosystem conversion to arable land on Amazonian soil biodiversity through a meta-analysis. We analyzed 274 pairwise comparisons of soil biodiversity in Amazonian primary forests and sites under different stages of deforestation and land-use conversion: disturbed (wildfire and selective logging) and slash-and-burnt forests, pastures, and cropping systems. Overall, 60% and 51% of responses of soil macrofauna and microbial community attributes (i.e., abundance, biomass, richness, and diversity indexes) to deforestation were negative, respectively. We found few studies on mesofauna (e.g., microarthropods) and microfauna (e.g., protozoa and nematodes), so those groups could not be analyzed. Macrofauna abundance and biomass were more vulnerable to the displacement of forests by pastures than by agricultural fields, whereas microbes showed the opposite pattern. Effects of Amazonian deforestation on macrofauna were more detrimental at sites with mean annual precipitation >1900 mm, and higher losses of microbes occurred in highly acidic soils (pH < 4.5). Limited geographic coverage, omission of meso- and microfauna, and low taxonomic resolution were main factors impairing generalizations from the data set. Few studies assessed the impacts of within-forest disturbance (wildfires and selective logging) on soil species in Amazonia, where logging operations rapidly expand across public lands and more frequent severe dry seasons are increasing the prevalence of wildfires.     

The assessment of environmentally sensitive forest road construction in Calabrian pine forest areas of Turkey

Forest road construction by bulldozers in Calabrian Pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) forests on mountainous terrain of Turkey causes considerable damage to the environment and the forest standing alongside the road. This situation obliges a study of environmentally sound road construction in Turkey. This study was carried out in 4 sample sites of Antalya Forest Directorate in steep (34-50% gradient) and very steep terrain (51-70% gradient) conditions with bulldozer and excavator machine and direct damages to forest during road construction was determined, including forest area losses and damages to downhill trees in mountainous areas. It was determined that in steep terrain when excavators were used, less forest area (22.16%) was destroyed compared to bulldozers and 26.54% less area in very steep terrain. The proportion of damage on trees where bulldozer worked was nearly twofold higher than excavator was used. The results of this research show that the environmentally sensitive techniques applied for the road construction projects are considerably superior to the traditional use of bulldozers on steep slopes. The environmentally sound forest road construction by use of excavator must be considered an appropriate and reliable solution for mountainous terrain where areas of sensitive forest ecosystems are to be opened up.     

Impacts of Roads and Hunting on Central African Rainforest Mammals

Abstract:  Road expansion and associated increases in hunting pressure are a rapidly growing threat to African tropical wildlife. In the rainforests of southern Gabon, we compared abundances of larger (>1 kg) mammal species at varying distances from forest roads and between hunted and unhunted treatments (comparing a 130-km² oil concession that was almost entirely protected from hunting with nearby areas outside the concession that had moderate hunting pressure). At each of 12 study sites that were evenly divided between hunted and unhunted areas, we established standardized 1-km transects at five distances (50, 300, 600, 900, and 1200 m) from an unpaved road, and then repeatedly surveyed mammals during the 2004 dry and wet seasons. Hunting had the greatest impact on duikers ( Cephalophus spp. ), forest buffalo ( Syncerus caffer nanus ), and red river hogs ( Potamochoerus porcus ), which declined in abundance outside the oil concession, and lesser effects on lowland gorillas ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla ) and carnivores. Roads depressed abundances of duikers, sitatungas ( Tragelaphus spekei gratus ), and forest elephants ( Loxondonta africana cyclotis ), with avoidance of roads being stronger outside than inside the concession. Five monkey species showed little response to roads or hunting, whereas some rodents and pangolins increased in abundance outside the concession, possibly in response to greater forest disturbance. Our findings suggest that even moderate hunting pressure can markedly alter the structure of mammal communities in central Africa. Roads had the greatest impacts on large and small ungulates, with the magnitude of road avoidance increasing with local hunting pressure.     

Considering connections between Hollywood and biodiversity conservation

Cinema offers a substantial opportunity to share messages with a wide audience. However, there is little research or evidence about the potential benefits and risks of cinema for conservation. Given their global reach, cinematic representations could be important in raising awareness of conservation issues and species of concern, as well as encouraging greater audience engagement due to their heightened emotional impact on viewers. Yet there are also risks associated with increased exposure, including heightened visitor pressure to environmentally sensitive areas or changes to consumer demand for endangered species. Conservationists can better understand and engage with the film industry by studying the impact of movies on audience awareness and behavior, identifying measurable impacts on conservation outcomes, and engaging directly with the movie industry, for example, in an advisory capacity. This improved understanding and engagement can harness the industry's potential to enhance the positive impacts of movies featuring species, sites, and issues of conservation concern and to mitigate any negative effects. A robust evidence base for evaluating and planning these engagements, and for informing related policy and management decisions, needs to be built.     

The Complex Links between Governance and Biodiversity

Abstract:  We argue that two problems weaken the claims of those who link corruption and the exploitation of natural resources. The first is conceptual and the second is methodological. Studies that use national-level indicators of corruption fail to note that corruption comes in many forms, at multiple levels, that may affect resource use quite differently: negatively, positively, or not at all. Without a clear causal model of the mechanism by which corruption affects resources, one should treat with caution any estimated relationship between corruption and the state of natural resources. Simple, atheoretical models linking corruption measures and natural resource use typically do not account for other important control variables pivotal to the relationship between humans and natural resources. By way of illustration of these two general concerns, we used statistical methods to demonstrate that the findings of a recent, well-known study that posits a link between corruption and decreases in forests and elephants are not robust to simple conceptual and methodological refinements. In particular, once we controlled for a few plausible anthropogenic and biophysical conditioning factors, estimated the effects in changes rather than levels so as not to confound cross-sectional and longitudinal variation, and incorporated additional observations from the same data sources, corruption levels no longer had any explanatory power.     

Mechanized Logging, Market Hunting, and a Bank Loan in Congo

Financing for logging of tropical moist forests in the Republic of Congo is commonly sought in the form of loans from multilateral development banks. Pressure from nongovernmental conservation organizations and from within the banks themselves has resulted in their beginning to assess the environmental consequences of such loans. We conducted one of the first such assessments of an African Development Bank loan to a logging company. Geographic isolation, resulting transportation costs, and market demands have forced commercial loggers within the Sangha region of Congo to exploit only the most valuable timber. This form of timber extraction destroys an average of 6.8% of the canopy and thus, unlike clear cutting, was expected to have a minimal impact on wildlife populations. Line transect counts showed, however, that primate abundance was exceedingly low in logged forest. We believe this is not a direct consequence of canopy reduction, but results from the extremely intensive market hunting that coincides with timber surveying and extraction. Weapons and hunting camps were common, and logging company vehicles transported primates, duikers and other game daily. Wildlife laws of Congo are openly violated and they are not enforced. While market hunting is clearly facilitated and intensified by the presence of logging concessions, it is the Congo's highly urbanized population that provides the ever growing demand for meat, a demand not being met through animal husbandry. Thus, although selective logging in the absence of hunting may have only limited adverse effects on wildlife, when the two are combined the consequences are grave for the Sangha region's wildlife. Loans to logging companies from the African Development Bank should incorporate conditions for ensuring wildlife conservation.     

用键合硅柱和色谱技术分析水中快杀稗残留

本文提供了两种简便、快速、灵敏、经济的快杀稗残留分析方法。用C_8键合硅柱萃取、富集水中的快杀稗,与MTBSTFA衍生,用GC-FID测定。添加回收率为90—108％,检测极限为1ppb。HPLC法,水样不必净化可直接测定,检测极限为20ppb。水样浓度过低时,需用C_8键合硅柱萃取,富集后用HPLC测定,20ppb的添加回收率为101.3％,可检测到2ppb。     

Why Poor Logging Practices Persist in the Tropics

Abstract: Despite abundant evidence that both the environmental damage and the financial costs of logging can be reduced substantially by training workers, pre-planning skid trails, practicing directional felling, and carrying out a variety of other well-known forestry practices, destructive logging is still common in the tropics. Based on our collective experience with loggers in tropical forests, we discuss seven possible reasons for this seemingly irrational behavior. The principal reason poor logging practices persist is apparently that the widely heralded cost savings associated with reduced-impact logging relative to unplanned logging by untrained crews may not be realized under some conditions. In particular, where compliance with logging guidelines restricts access to steep slopes or prohibits ground-based timber yarding on wet ground, reduced-impact logging may be synonymous with reduced-income logging. Given that under such conditions loggers may not adopt reduced-impact logging methods out of self-interest, fiscal mechanisms for promoting sustainable forest management may be needed.     

Comparative tests of reproductive skew in male primates: the roles of demographic factors and incomplete control

Reproductive skew models have been proposed as a unifying framework for understanding animal social systems, but few studies have investigated reproductive skew in a broad evolutionary context. We compiled data on the distribution of mating among males for 31 species of primates and calculated skew indices for each study. We analyzed the determinants of mating skew with phylogenetic comparative methods to investigate two models from reproductive skew theory, the concession model and the tug-of-war model. Mating skew decreased as the number of males increased in multimale groups, suggesting that monopolization of females becomes more difficult when there are more rivals, and therefore supporting the tug-of-war model. We predicted that single males are unable to monopolize receptive females as overlap in female receptivity increases (estrous synchrony) and, as a result, that mating skew decreases. However, we did not find any evidence for a link between female estrous synchrony and male mating skew. Finally, the concession model predicts high skew in male philopatric species relative to species in which males disperse, yet our measures of mating skew showed no significant associations with qualitative scores of male dispersal. More definitive tests of the concession model will require more quantitative measures of relatedness, which are presently unavailable for most primate species in our study. Overall, our results provide support for the tug-of-war model in primates, and the approach developed here can be applied to study comparative patterns of skew in other biological systems.Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible to authorized users.