Polarographic investigations on the complexation of cadmium and zinc by thiol peptides

Complex formation of Cd²⁺ and Zn²⁺ with thiol derivatives has been investigated by differential pulse polarography. The binding of Cd²⁺ and Zn²⁺ with cysteine (CySH), glutathione (GSH) and the model peptide N‐acetyl‐cysteine‐methylamide (ASH) reveals different stoichiometry. Thus, Cd²⁺ forms 1:1 and 1:2 complexes with CySH while 1:2 and 1:4 complexes have been observed with GSH and ASH, respectively. Overall formation constants of Cd²⁺ with CySH (Iogβ ₂ 15.3) and with GSH (Iogβ5₂ 14.4) have been estimated using competitive complexation with nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA). Investigation of competition between Zn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ for the thiol complexation has underlined the role played by the amino group in CySH for the stabilization of Zn complexes in contrary to Cd complexes.     

Efficient uranium immobilization on red clay with phosphates

Uranium is a very toxic and radioactive element. Removal of uranium from wastewaters requires remediation technologies. Actual methods are costly and ineffective when uranium concentration is very low. Little is known about the enhancement of sorption of uranyl ions by phosphate ions on aluminosilicates. Here, we studied sorption of uranyl acetate on red clay in the presence of phosphates. The concentration of U(VI) ranged 0.0001–0.001 mol/L, whereas the concentration of PO₄ ^3? was constant at 0.0001 mol/L. We designed a new method for the analysis of ternary surface complexes. We observed for the first time a remarkable improvement of U(VI) sorption on red clay under the influence of phosphates. We also found that at least two different ternary surface complexes U(VI)–phosphate–clay are formed in the sorbent phase. The complexation of UO₂ ²⁺ cations by phosphate ligands in the sorbent phase was confirmed by the X-ray photoelectron spectra of U 4f electrons.     

Heavy-metal adsorption by non-living biomass

The adsorption of some heavy metals onto the walls of harvested, washed, and dried non-living biomass cells of different Pseudomonas strains was studied at optimum experimental conditions using a simplified single component system. The Langmuir adsorption model was found to be a suitable approach to describe the system via multi-step processes. Isotherms measured at 30.0°C and pH 5.5 with [M]_total?=?10–100 mM for tight, reversible Cr⁶⁺(aq), Ni²⁺(aq), Cu²⁺(aq) and Cd²⁺(aq) binding by the cell walls of the investigated biomass fit the Langmuir model and give the pH-independent stoichiometric site capacities ν _i and equilibrium constants K _i for metal binding at specific biomass sites i?=?A, B, C, and D. Tight binding sites A, B, and D of the non-living biomass are occupied by Cr^VI, sites A and C by Ni^II, sites A and D by Cd^II, and only site B by Cu^II. It is concluded that ν _i is a stoichiometric parameter that is independent of the magnitude of K _i for binding site i and that the studied heavy metals selectively and tightly bind at different biomass sites.     

水体酸化条件下Cu(II)对斑马鱼胚胎的毒性效应

为评价由酸雨、酸性矿山排水等环境污染导致的水体酸化及水体重金属联合作用对水生生物的生态毒性效应,研究了不同pH值(pH=3、4、5、6、7和7.8)条件下Cu2+对斑马鱼胚胎发育的影响。结果表明,酸性水体及Cu2+单一存在时,酸对斑马鱼胚胎24h半数效应浓度值EC50为pH=3.65,Cu2+(pH=7.8)对斑马鱼胚胎24h-EC50为0.267mg·L-1;当水体酸化及水体中的Cu2+共存时,较低的pH对Cu2+的生物毒性起协同作用,表现为随溶液pH的降低,各浓度Cu2+对斑马鱼胚胎的24h凝结率显著增高(P24h致死率=0.001),而斑马鱼胚胎96h孵化率显著降低(P96h孵化率=0.002),且不同浓度的Cu2+之间的生物毒性效应存在显著性差异(P24h致死率=0.0321;P96h孵化率=0.0028)。这说明酸性水体和Cu2+都显著影响斑马鱼胚胎的发育,且Cu2+在酸性水体中对斑马鱼胚胎的毒性显著增强。因此,在受重金属Cu2+污染的地区,如同时受到酸雨或酸性矿山排水等较低pH值和Cu2+的双重胁迫,较低浓度的Cu2+就能够对水生生物的生殖发育及水生生态系统产生严重的影响和危害。     

Green chemistry approach to analysis of formic acid and acetic acid in aquatic environment by headspace water-based liquid-phase microextraction and high-performance liquid chromatography

A simple and totally organic-free (green) method, viz. headspace water-based liquid-phase microextraction combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection has been successfully developed for analysis of formic acid and acetic acid in environmental water samples. A microdrop of an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide was suspended from the tip of a microsyringe needle over the headspace of the stirred sample solution containing the analytes at pH 1.0 for a given time. The microdrop was then retracted into the microsyringe, diluted with HPLC mobile phase, and injected to HPLC. Optimum efficiency has been achieved for: 3.0 µL NaOH microdrop (0.1 mol L^?1) exposed for 15 min over the headspace of an aqueous sample of 6.5 mL at 55 °C, containing 15% w/v of Na₂SO₄, adjusted to pH = 1.0 and stirred at 750 rpm. Under these conditions, enrichment factors of 162 and 187, limits of detection of 0.3 and 0.1 µg L^?1 (S/N = 3) with dynamic linear ranges of 1–500 and 0.5–500 µg L^?1 were obtained for formic acid and acetic acid, respectively. A reasonable repeatability (5.8% ≤ RSD ≤ 8.8%, n = 6) and satisfactory linearity (r² ≥ 0.997) illustrated the performance of the method.     

In vivo binding of a biologically active oligopeptide in vegetative buds of the scyphozoan Cassiopea andromeda: demonstration of receptor-mediated induction of metamorphosis

Vegetative buds of Cassiopea andromeda (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) metamorphose into polyps in the presence of short synthetic peptides containing proline as the preterminal amino acid at the carboxyl terminus. In an in vivo assay, the binding of the biologically active hexapeptide ¹⁴C-dansyl-GPGGPA in buds was shown to be specific and saturable. Scatchard plot analysis of the specific binding data revealed a dissociation constant (K _D) of about 7 M. The total number of receptors was calculated to be approximately 1×10¹⁰ bud^-1 under saturation conditions. In correlation with the results of prior investigations, our finding of receptor-mediated induction of metamorphosis strongly supports the hypothesis that binding of biologically active peptides to receptors leads to initiation of phosphatidylinositol breakdown and activation of protein kinase C.     

纳米银复合材料与抗生素的联合抗菌性能及相关机制研究

抗生素的滥用导致细菌耐药问题日益严重,人类迫切需要开发出新的抗菌药物以减少细菌耐药问题。基于纳米银制备而成的纳米银复合材料在兼顾纳米银抗菌性能的同时不仅能够克服单一纳米银释放速度快、不稳定等缺点,还能缓解细菌耐药的问题,因此被认为是一类具有广泛应用前景的新型抗菌剂。已有研究表明,单一纳米银与某些抗生素的联合使用可以达到协同抗菌效果,但目前尚缺乏对纳米银复合材料与抗生素的联合抗菌性能及机制的研究。本文首先制备出3种不同结构的纳米银复合材料,包括二氧化硅-聚多巴胺-纳米银复合材料(SiO_2-PD-AgNPs)、纳米银@二氧化硅复合材料(AgNPs@SiO_2)和纳米银@二氧化硅-聚多巴胺-纳米银复合材料(AgNPs@SiO_2-PD-AgNPs)。随后测定了纳米银复合材料对大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli, E. coli)和枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis, B. subtilis)的单一毒性效应。结果显示,AgNPs@SiO_2-PD-AgNPs复合材料对2种菌的单一毒性均大于其余2种纳米银复合材料。因此,笔者以AgNPs@SiO_2-PD-AgNPs作为代表,测定了纳米银复合材料与硫酸卡那霉素(kanamycin sulfate, KS)/盐酸土霉素(oxytetracycline hydrochloride, OH)的二元联合抗菌性能,发现AgNPs@SiO_2-PD-AgNPs与KS联合可以对E. coli产生协同效应。协同效应产生的主要原因可能是:AgNPs@SiO_2-PD-AgNPs释放出的纳米银会和KS发生键合反应生成KS-纳米银复合物,导致纳米银释放出大量的Ag+增加了细胞膜的通透性,从而使得进入细菌内的Ag~+和KS比单独作用时进入胞内的抗菌剂增多,产生更强的抗菌性能,从而表现出协同抗菌效应。本研究基于新型纳米银复合材料与抗生素的联合抗菌性能实验探究了纳米银复合材料与特定抗生素联合用药的最佳组合和相关机制,为今后开发新型抗菌材料提供了新思路并为相关联合用药提供参考。     

2个镉耐性差异箭舌豌豆品种中镉的化学形态及亚细胞分布

通过溶液培养实验,研究了镉胁迫下2个箭舌豌豆(Vicia sativa)品种(镉耐性品种L3,镉敏感品种ZM)中镉的积累、镉的亚细胞分布和化学形态以及非蛋白巯基化合物(NPTs)的响应。结果表明2个箭舌豌豆品种根较地上部积累更多的镉。镉在箭舌豌豆根、茎和叶中主要分布于可溶性组分,敏感品种ZM根中可溶性组分的镉含量和占总镉的比例显著高于耐性品种L3。细胞壁结合镉占总镉的比例在2个品种中均为叶>茎>根。镉在箭舌豌豆根和茎内主要以去离子水(d-H2O)提取态和1 mol·L-1氯化钠(Na Cl)提取态存在,ZM根中d-H2O提取态镉的含量和比例显著大于L3。箭舌豌豆叶中镉主要以2%醋酸(HAc)提取态存在。ZM叶中80%乙醇提取态镉的比例大于L3,0.6 mol·L-1盐酸(HCl)提取态镉和残渣态镉的比例小于L3。2个品种根和茎中NPTs的含量在镉胁迫下显著升高,ZM根中NPTs的含量显著大于L3。研究结果表明,箭舌豌豆镉解毒的主要机制包括限制镉由根部向地上部转运和液泡隔离。此外,根和茎中镉与有机酸结合和NPTs螯合,叶中镉以移动性低、毒性低的形态存在也是箭舌豌豆镉解毒的重要机制。ZM较L3根中更多镉以移动性高的形态存在,L3较ZM叶中更多镉以难移动的形态存在,是L3较ZM具有更高镉耐性的重要原因。     

Studies on the mechanism of biosynthesis of wax esters in Euchaeta norvegica

Preparations of Euchaeta norvegica catalyse the incorporation of (1-¹⁴C) hexadecanol, (9,10-³H₂) oleic acid, (U-¹⁴C) glucose, (U-¹⁴C) alanine and (U-¹⁴C) aspartic acid into wax esters. Both the fatty alcohol and fatty acid moieties of the wax esters are labelled, indicating de novo biosynthesis. A limited interconversion of fatty acid and fatty alcohol has been demonstrated. Incorporation of glucose into wax esters is diminished by prior starving of E. norvegica; it is also reduced in the presence of ecdysterone. Formation of wax esters from glucose is inhibited by increased oxygen tensions, rotenone and dinitrophenol, and is relatively insensitive to decreased oxygen tensions and cyanide. The data are discussed with particular reference to the reasons why wax esters are biosynthesised by calanoids.     

Calcium exchange and the measurement of calcification rates in the calcareous coralline red alga Amphiroa foliacea

⁴⁵Ca washout data of living thalli of Amphiroa foliacea Lamouroux in the light and dark show that there are three kinetically distinct Ca²⁺-exchanging compartments with approximate half-times (t 1/2) of 300, 20 and 3 min. The two slower compartments appear to be exchange from organic Ca²⁺-binding components of the cell wall, while the fast compartment probably represents exchange on the CaCO₃ crystal surface. Killed and decalcified thalli have a fourth compartment, with a t 1/2 of 20 to 35 min (other compartment half-times are 300, 40, 3 min), which has been identified as the greatly increased intercellular space produced during drying and decalcification. The ⁴⁵Ca and ¹⁴C uptake data show that a large proportion of the label initially taken up is into compartments other than the CaCO₃. As a result of this uptake, binding, and exchange of radioisotope, significant errors occur during the measurement of calcification rates, unless a kinetic analysis is carried out. Using such a technique, CaCO₃ calcification rates of A. folicea were measured with ⁴⁵Ca or ¹⁴C as tracers. Light stimulates calcification by up to 2.6 times, depending upon the age of the plant. Young segments have a markedly higher rate of calcification and photosythesis than do the older segments.     

Binding of manganese by Antarctic Phaeocystis pouchetii and the role of bacteria in its release

The growth of Antarctic Phaeocystis pouchetii and associated bacteria in culture, and the binding and release of manganese were investigated using cultures derived from three clonal isolates collected from Prydz Bay, Antarctica, in November and December 1982. The cultured strains accumulated manganese from the culture medium. The concentration of Mn²⁺ in the alga was up to 58 times that of the medium. The Mn²⁺ apparently binds to the mucilage secreted by the cells and gives the alga its characteristic brown colour. Oxidation or complexing of Mn²⁺ by P. pouchetii was also indicated. Bacterial growth on the mucilage is inhibited in rapidly growing cultures by acrylic acid produced in the mucilage. Once the growth of P. pouchetii and production of ccrylic acid slow, bacterial numbers increase, leading to the solubilization of the mucilage and the release of Mn²⁺. In cool-temperate, subpolar and polar seas where P. pouchetii may form dense blooms, the binding and subsequent release of manganese may have important consequences for competing phytoplankton.     

Differential effects of UV-B radiation fluence rates on growth,photosynthesis, and phosphate metabolism in two cyanobacteria under copper toxicity

This work was undertaken to ascertain the impact of different fluence rates of ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation on two cyanobacterial biofertilizers, Phormidium foveolarum and Nostoc muscorum, growing under copper toxicity. Copper (2 and 5?µmol?L^?1) and high UV-B fluence rate (UV-B_H; 1.0?µmol?m^?2?s^?1) decreased the growth, pigment content, photosynthetic oxygen yield, phosphate uptake, and acid phosphatase activity in both the strains analyzed after 24 and 72?h of experiments, and combined exposure further enhanced the toxic effects. Respiration and alkaline phosphatase activities were stimulated appreciably. The damaging effect was shown on the order on pigments: phycocyanin?>?chlorophyll a?>?carotenoids, and on photosystems: whole chain photosynthetic reaction?>?photosystem II?>?photosystem I. Partial recovery in the photosystem II activity in the presence of artificial electron donors; diphenyl carbazide (DPC), hydroxylamine (NH₂OH), and manganese chloride (MnCl₂) pointed out the interruption of electron flow on the oxidation side of photosystem II. Unlike UV-B_H, low UV-B fluence rate (UV-B_L; 0.1?µmol?m^?2?s^?1), rather than causing damaging effect partially, alleviated the toxic effects of Cu. This study suggests that the cyanobacterium P. foveolarum is less sensitive against UV-B_H and excess Cu (2 and 5?µmol?L^?1), thus P. foveolarum may be used as a biofertilizer for sustainable agriculture.     

The Influence of Varying Algal Biomass On Contaminant Exposure in Benthic-Planktonic Mesocosms: Copper (Ii)

Abstract

A series of mesocosms was exposed to a suite of light treatments and nutrient enrichment in order to generate algal communities of varying biomass. the influence of this biomass on the speciation of copper (II) was studied. Distribution coefficients ( _Kd,Lkg?1) were relatively high (log _Kd = 5 to 7), indicative of robust trace metal sequestration, and were likely controlled by the particulate organic carbon content (foc). Differences in _Kd over time and among treatments were significant, as was the relationship between _Kd and foc. Fluorescence quenching was used to determine binding capacities ( _Lt , M) and their associated binding constants ( _Kcond ,M^?1) in order to model the solid phase copper speciation. the _Kcond ranged between 2.1 and 5.2 × 10¹²M^?1, indicating a very strong copper-ligand complex, and was higher in mesocosms that received more light. the light _Lt increased over time, dramatically after the nutrient enrichment, but did not vary systematically among light treatments. _Lt ranged from 7.2 × 10? 7 to 4.9 × 10? 5 M. the large magnitudes of _Kd , _Kcond and _Lt ensured that greater than 97% of total copper in the mesocosms was complexed by organic matter. the total copper concentration ([Cu]_T, M) needed to reach a target dissolved copper concentration of 10^?12.5 M (pCu = 12.5) was determined for each mesocosm over time. [Cu]_T was between 8.02 × 10^?5 and 3.41 × 10^?2 M, and increased over time. the [Cu]_T normalized to the target pCu (Effective Dose Ratio, EDR) increased directly with increases in algal biomass, indicating a direct link between system productivity and copper exposure. Approximately 45% of the variance in EDR was explained by variance in total biomass, while the residual variance in EDR was due likely to differences in the strengths of particle associations and magnitude of binding capacities.     

The systemic heart of Octopus vulgaris: effects of exogenous arachidonic acid and capability for arachidonate metabolism

The actions of exogenous arachidonic acid on the performance of the isolated and perfused systemic heart of Octopus vulgaris (collected in the Bay of Naples in 1992), and the potential of this heart for eicosanoid synthesis are described. Arachidonic acid induces positive chronotropic and inotropic effects. The positive inotropic effect is apparent only at the lowest concentration used (10^–7 M) and in the paced heart preparations, in which a negative relationship between stroke volume and heart rate has been demonstrated. Using 10^–5 M arachidonate, which induces the greatest chronotropic effect, a reduction of inotropism is evident which is due to the above negative relationship between stroke volume and heart rate. These effects are scarcely affected by the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase inhibitors, indomethacin (IM) and nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), respectively. On the coronary system of this heart arachidonic acid displays a potent vasoconstrictory action (ca. 100 percent increase of coronary resistance). This effect is potentiated by IM and reduced by NDGA. ¹⁴C-arachidonate is metabolized by the octopus ventricle homogenate into the lipoxygenase products (assayed as hydroxy acids) more actively than into cyclooxygenase products (prostanoids: PGE₂, PGD₂, PGF₂ and 6-keto-PGF₁). On the other hand, the Ca-ionophore A23187 enhances the production of cyclooxygenase metabolites much more than of lipoxygenase metabolites.     

A reevaluation of the role of glycerol in carbon translocation in zooxanthellae-coelenterate symbiosis

Glycerol has been traditionally viewed as the main form of carbon translocated from zooxanthellae to the coelenterate host. Most of this glycerol was postulated to be used by the coelenterate host for lipid synthesis. Recent work suggests that large amounts of photosynthetically fixed carbon is synthesized into lipid in the algae, and then translocated as lipid droplets to the host. These two hypotheses of carbon translocation are not mutually exclusive, but to reconcile them the role of glycerol must be reevaluated. In this study the short term metabolic fate of uniformly labelled ¹⁴C-glycerol, ¹⁴C-bicarbonate, and ¹⁴C-acetate was examined in zooxanthellae and coelenterate host tissue isolated from Condylactis gigantea tentacles. When host and algal triglycerides, synthesized during 90-min light and dark incubations in ¹⁴C-bicarbonate and ¹⁴C-acetate, were deacylated, more than 80% of the activity was found in the fatty acid moiety. In contrast, triglycerides isolated from zooxanthellae and coelenterate host tissue incubated in ¹⁴C-glycerol in the dark for 90 min were found to have more than 95% of their radioactivity in the glycerol moiety. During the 90-min ¹⁴C-glycerol incubations in the light, the percentage of radioactivity in the fatty acid moiety of zooxanthellae triglycerides increased to 37%. The percentage of radioactivity in the host tissue triglycerides fatty acid moiety stayed below 5% during the 90-min ¹⁴C-glycerol incubations in the light. These results show that neither the zooxanthellae nor the host can rapidly convert glycerol to fatty acid. Radioactivity from ¹⁴C-glycerol, which does eventually appear in host lipid, may have been respired to ¹⁴CO₂, then photosynthetically fixed by the zooxanthellae and synthesized into lipid fatty acid.     

Changes in phospholipase A2 activity and lipid content during early development of Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus)

During early development in fish, phospholipase A₂ (EC 3.1.1.4) regulates membrane lipid modifications, which relates to changes in environmental conditions and provision of fatty acids required for metabolic energy substrates and prostaglandin biosynthesis. A method to analyze phospholipase A₂ in rat tissues has been modified to measure its activity in embryonic Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.). Egg and embryo samples were collected during the 1994 spawning season. Enzyme activity was undetectable at fertilization but in 10-d embryos was 230 pmol mg⁻¹ h⁻¹ (at 20 °C) and increased by ∼120% at hatch (17-d). Significant alterations in the fatty acid composition of important phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), were also observed. The content of some critical polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the ratio of unsaturated/saturated fatty acids, declined significantly over development. Acyl-chain restructuring mediated through the activity of phospholipase A₂, coupled with other observed lipid changes (significant increases in the PC/PE ratio and cholesterol content), would produce a decreased fluidity of membranes during embryonic development, coinciding with the predicted upward movement of larvae in the water column. Arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) removed from PE could serve as a precursor for biosynthesis of 2-series prostaglandins, and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) from PC is a likely source for other prostaglandin types. Despite removal of polyunsaturated fatty acids, there was an overall increase in lipid and fatty acid concentration, which can be attributed to amino acid catabolism during early developmental stages. Received: 9 September 1996 / Accepted: 8 September 1997     

Benzoic acid, a stimulant of odorant receptors of Bombyx mori, is rapidly metabolized to N-benzoylserine on the antennae

Summary. Benzoic acid is a known stimulant of olfactory receptor cells in trichoid sensilla on the antennae of adult females of Bombyx mori. Exposure of freshly excised antennae, from B. mori females and males, to vapours of [¹⁴C]-benzoic acid revealed that the adsorbed acid is rapidly metabolized (15% conversion in 10 s), suggesting the presence of a highly active enzymatic system. The major product could be identified as N-benzoylserine by use of [²H₅]-benzoic acid, and mass spectrometry linked to a gas chromatograph (GC-MS) or a liquid chromatograph (LC-MS), for analysis of the metabolites. The conjugation of benzoic acid with an amino acid apparently represents a novel mode for the rapid deactivation of odorant molecules. Received 26 March 2001.     

Chromate bioavailability to the mollusc Venus Verrucosa

In this work the biokinetics of ⁵¹CrO² ₄ ^‐ in the edible mollusc Venus Verrucosa were studied. Laboratory uptake experiments, using two groups of Venus verrucosa, were performed, in aquaria containing sea water with Na₂ ⁵¹CrO² ₄ ^‐, in concentrations of 40 and 80 μCi/201 respectively. The distribution pattern of ⁵¹CrO² ₄ ^‐ in the body of V. verrucosa was studied. The biological half time of ⁵¹CrO² ₄ ^‐ was also found (Tb_1/2 = 41.8d). The concentration factors for ⁵¹CrO² ₄ ^‐ were found to be low (k～2) for both concentrations used. From the accumulated whole body radioactivity 59.0% was found in the shell. In the internal tissues viscera and gills display the greater ability to accumulate ⁵¹Cr in its hexavalent state.     

Arsenic metabolism in marine bacteria and yeast

Arsenic metabolism was studied for two marine microorganisms, a facultative anaerobic bacterium, Serratia marinorubra, and an obligately aerobic yeast, Rhodotorula rubra. Both were cultivated in media with (⁷⁴As) arsenate (As V), and the products of arsenate metabolism were determined qualitatively. Both the bacterium and the yeast produced arsenite (AS III) and methylarsonic acid [CH₃AsO(OH)₂]. In addition to the foregoing, only the yeast produced dimethylarsinic acid (CH₃)₂AsO(OH) and volatile alkylarsines. In contrast, the bacterium growing anaerobically with cobalamine as a cofactor did not synthesize gaseous forms of arsenic such as methylarsines. Neither organism synthesized arsoniumphospholipids such as those produced by marine phytoplankton or terrestrial fungi. The yeast did not accumulate arsenite, but instead transported some of it into the culture medium and methylated the remainder first to methylarsonic acid and then to dimethylarsinic acid. Finally, the latter compound was methylated further and volatile alkylarsines were formed. In contrast, the bacterium retained all products of arsenate metabolism intracellularly. Both the bacterium and the yeast, therefore, converted relatively toxic arsenate, the most abundant arsenic compound in seawater, to products that were presumably less toxic.     

Symbiosis in sacoglossan opisthobranchs: functional capacity of symbiotic chloroplasts

It has been previously reported that many species of the order Sacoglossa (Mollusca: Opisthobranchia) contain algal chloroplasts within the cells of their digestive gland and maintain them in a symbiotic condition. In the present study, two species, Elysia hedgpethi Marcus and Placobranchus ianthobapsus Gould, were compared as to their abilities to retain functional chloroplasts in their tissues. Animals were starved for varying lengths of time, and the functional capacity of the plastids was ascertained at intervals. The chlorophyll content of whole animals, and the ability to incorporate ¹⁴CO₂ were used as the assay for functional capacity. E. hedgpethi decreased in chlorophyll content during starvation until the tenth day, when no chlorophyll was detectable spectrophoto-metrically. Incorporation of ¹⁴CO₂ paralleled the decline in chlorophyll, and was at control levels by the tenth day. P. ianthobapsus showed no decline in chlorophyll content over 27 days starvation, although the ability to incorporate ¹⁴CO₂ showed a decrease.