大尺度管道中煤粉爆炸的试验研究

煤粉爆炸传播特性的试验研究对于深入了解和预防矿井煤尘爆炸事故有重要意义。利用自制的长29.6 m,内径199 mm的试验管道,对煤粉-空气混合物爆炸压力波传播过程进行试验研究。采用压电传感器测量压力信号,得到爆炸压力波沿管道传播过程中不同测点处的压力时间历程曲线,探讨煤粉粒度和浓度对其爆炸超压的影响规律。结果表明:煤粉-空气混和物在弱点火条件下能够实现粉尘火焰的形成和传播。煤粉爆炸压力波传播过程中速度为400~430 m/s,峰值超压为68~72 kPa。煤粉爆炸峰值超压随着煤粉粒度的减小而增大,但煤粉粒度对其爆炸峰值超压的影响程度随着浓度的增加将逐渐减弱。     

Experimental study on the mitigation via an ultra-fine water mist of methane/coal dust mixture explosions in the presence of obstacles

In this paper, experimental investigations were performed for the mitigation via an ultra-fine water mist of methane/coal dust mixture explosions in the presence of obstacles to reveal the effects of the obstacles in this scenario. Two PCB piezo-electronic pressure transducers were used to acquire the pressure history, a Fastcam Ultima APX high-speed video camera was used to visualize both the process of the mixture explosion and its mitigation. The diameters of the coal dust, the types of obstacles and the volumes of ultra-fine water mist were varied in the tests. The parameters of the explosion overpressure and the range of critical volume flux of the ultra-fine water mist for explosion mitigation were determined. The results show that the mixture explosion and its mitigation are primarily influenced by the number, shape and set locations of the obstacles. When the volume flux of the water mist is larger than a certain amount, the mixture explosions and the effects of obstacles can be completely mitigated with the ultra-fine water mist.     

A study on the obstacle-induced variation of the gas explosion characteristics

A study on the variation of the gas explosion characteristics caused by the built-in obstacles was conducted in enclosed/vented gas explosion vessels. It has been well known that the obstacles in pipes and long ducts would accelerate the flame propagation, and cause the transition from deflagration to detonation. In this study, the explosion characteristics and the flame behavior of vented explosions and constant-volume explosions were investigated. Experiments were carried out in a 270-liter and 36-liter hexahedron vessels filled with LPG–air mixture. The explosion characteristics of the gas mixture were determined by using a strain-responding pressure transducer. The flame behavior was recorded by using a high-speed video camera. The shape and the size of the obstacle, and the gas concentration, were adjusted in the experiments.

It can be seen from the experimental results that, instead of being accelerated, the flame propagation inside the explosion vessel is decelerated by the plate obstacles fixed at the bottom of the vessel. Also, the characteristics of the enclosed explosion are not so affected by the built-in obstacles as those of the vented explosion are. It is believed that the eddy-induced turbulence behind the obstacle decelerates the flame propagation.     

Methane/coal dust/air explosions and their suppression by solid particle suppressing agents in a large-scale experimental tube

Methane/coal dust/air explosions under strong ignition conditions have been studied in a 199 mm inner diameter and 30.8 m long horizontal tube. A fuel gas/air manifold assembly was used to introduce methane and air into the experimental tube, and an array of 44 equally spaced dust dispersion units was used to disperse coal dust particles into the tube. The methane/coal dust/air mixture was ignited by a 7 m long epoxypropane mist cloud explosion. A deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) was observed, and a self-sustained detonation wave characterized by the existence of a transverse wave was propagated in the methane/coal dust/air mixtures.The suppressing effects on methane/coal dust/air mixture explosions of three solid particle suppressing agents have been studied. Coal dust and the suppressing agent were injected into the experimental tube by the dust dispersion units. The length of the suppression was 14 m. The suppression agents examined in this study comprised ABC powder, SiO₂ powder, and rock dust powder (CaCO₃). Methane/coal dust/air explosions can be efficiently suppressed by the suppression agents characterized by the rapid decrease in overpressure and propagating velocity of the explosion waves.     

Effects of obstacles and deposited coal dust on characteristics of premixed methane–air explosions in a long closed pipe

An experimental system including pressure transducer, electric spark ignition device, data acquisition and control unit was set up to investigate methane–air explosions in a horizontal pipe closed at both ends with or without the presence of obstacles and deposited coal dust. The experimental results show that explosion characteristics depended on the methane content, on the layout of obstacles, and on the deposited coal dust. Pressure fluctuation with a frequency of 150 Hz appeared in its crest when the methane content was close to the stoichiometric ratio (9.5% methane percentage by volume). The pressure rise rate increased locally when a single obstacle was mounted in the pipe, but it had little effect on the pressure peak. Repeated obstacles mounted in the pipe caused the pressure to rise sharply, and the mean maximum explosion overpressure increased with the increase of the obstacle’s number. The amplitude of pressure fluctuation was reduced when deposited coal dust was paved in the bottom of the pipe. However, when repeated obstacles were arranged inside, the maximum overpressures were higher with coal dust deposited than pure gas explosions.     

Influence of ignition position and obstacles on explosion development in methane–air mixture in closed vessels

The paper outlines an experimental study of influence of the ignition position and obstacles on explosion development in premixed methane–air mixtures in an elongated explosion vessel. As the explosion vessel, 1325 mm length tube with 128.5 mm diameter was used. Location of the ignition was changeable, i.e., fitted in the centre or at one of ends of the tube, when the tube was in a horizontal position. When it was in a vertical position, three locations of the ignition (bottom, centre and top) were used. In the performed study, the influence of obstacles on the course of pressure was investigated. Two identical steel grids were used as the obstacles. They were placed 405 mm from either end of the tube. Their blockage ratio (grid area to tube cross-section area) was determined as 0.33 for most of experiments. A few additional experiments (with smaller blockage ratio—0.16) were also conducted in order to compare the influence of the blockage ratio on the explosion development. Also some experiments were conducted in a semi-cylindrical vessel with volume close to 40 l.

All the experiments were performed under stabilized conditions, with the temperature and pressure inside the vessel settled to room values and controlled by means of electronic devices. The pressure–time profiles from two transducers placed in the centreline of the inner wall of the explosion vessel were obtained for stoichiometric (9.5%), lean (7%) and rich (12%) methane–air mixture. The results obtained in the study, including maximum pressures and pressure–time profiles, illustrate a quite distinct influence of the above listed factors upon the explosion characteristics. The effect of ignition position, obstacles location and their BR parameters is discussed.

The additional aim of the performed experiments was to find the data necessary to validate a new computer code, developed to calculate an explosion hazard in industrial installations.     

Premixed methane-air deflagrations in a completely adiabatic pipe and the effect of the condition of the pipe wall

A completely adiabatic pipe that is similar to a coal-mine coal or rock roadway was simulated using the computational software AutoReaGas. A partially adiabatic pipe was established using an experimental steel pipe with heat-insulating material installed in the inner wall, and a non-adiabatic pipe was also established using the experimental steel pipe without the heat-insulating material. Premixed methane/air deflagrations were studied in the three types of pipe to reveal the influence of the condition of the pipe wall on gas explosions. The results showed that in the completely adiabatic pipe, the maximum explosion overpressure was dynamic and decreased and increased with increasing distance; however, the flame-propagation speed increased gradually. In the partially adiabatic pipe and the non-adiabatic pipe, the maximum explosion overpressure and flame-propagation speed increased initially and then gradually decreased with increasing distance. The majority of explosion overpressure and flame-propagation speed values at each gauge in the completely adiabatic pipe were larger than those of the partially adiabatic pipe. Both measurements at each gauge in the partially adiabatic pipe were much greater than those of the non-adiabatic pipe. The condition of the pipe wall has a large influence on the maximum explosion overpressure and the flame-propagation speed. In future explosion experiments, heat insulating materials should be installed in the inner wall of steel pipes to obtain data for application to the prevention and control of gas explosions in underground coal mines.     

The multi-energy critical separation distance

Devastating vapour cloud explosions can only develop under appropriate (boundary) conditions. The record of vapour cloud explosion incidents from the past demonstrates that these conditions are readily met by the congestion by process equipment at (petro-) chemical plant sites. Therefore, the possibility of an accidental release of a flammable and a subsequent vapour cloud explosion is a major hazardous scenario considered in any risk assessment with regard to the process industries.If an extended flammable vapour cloud at a chemical plant site extends over more than one process unit, which are separated by lanes of sufficient width, the vapour cloud explosion on ignition develops the same number of separate blasts. If, on the other hand, the separation between the units is insufficient, the vapour cloud explosion develops one big blast. The critical separation distance (SD) is the criterion that allows discriminating in this matter for blast modelling purposes.This paper summarises some major results of an experimental research programme with the objective to develop practical guidelines with regard to the critical SD. To this end, a series of small-scale explosion experiments have been performed with vapour clouds containing two separate configurations of obstacles. Blast overpressures at various stations around have been recorded while the SD between the two configurations of obstacles was varied.The experimental programme resulted in some clear indications for the extent of the critical SD between separate areas of congestion. On the basis of safety and conservatism, these indications have been rendered into a concrete guideline. Application of this guideline would allow a greater accuracy in the modelling of blast from vapour cloud explosions.     

Prediction of distance to maximum intensity of turbulence generated by grid plate obstacles in explosion-induced flows

The interaction of unburnt gas flow induced in an explosion with an obstacle results in the production of turbulence downstream of the obstacle and the acceleration of the flame when it reaches this turbulence. Currently, there are inadequate experimental measurements of these turbulent flows in gas explosions due to transient nature of explosion flows and the connected harsh conditions. Hence, majority of measurements of turbulent properties downstream of obstacles are done using steady-state flows rather than transient flows. Consequently, an empirical based correlation to predict distance to maximum intensity of turbulence downstream of an obstacle in an explosion-induced flow using the available steady state experiments was developed in this study. The correlation would serve as a prerequisite for determining an optimum spacing between obstacles thereby determining worst case gas explosions overpressure and flame speeds. Using a limited experimental work on systematic study of obstacle spacing, the correlation was validated against 13 different test conditions. A ratio of the optimum spacing from the experiment, x_exp to the predicted optimum spacing, x_pred for all the tests was between 2-4. This shows that a factor of three higher than the x_pred would be required to produce optimum obstacle spacing that will lead to maximum explosion severity. In planning the layout of new installations, it is appropriate to identify the relevant worst case obstacle separation in order to avoid it. In assessing the risk to existing installations and taking appropriate mitigation measures it is important to evaluate such risk on the basis of a clear understanding of the effects of separation distance and congestion. It is therefore suggested that the various new correlations obtained from this work be subjected to further rigorous validation from relevant experimental data prior to been applied as design tools.     

Experimental investigation on explosion flame propagation of wood dust in a semi-closed tube

In order to explore flame propagation characteristics during wood dust explosions in a semi-closed tube, a high-speed camera, a thermal infrared imaging device and a pressure sensor were used in the study. Poplar dusts with different particle size distributions (0–50, 50–96 and 96–180 μm) were respectively placed in a Hartmann tube to mimic dust cloud explosions, and flame propagation behaviors such as flame propagation velocity, flame temperature and explosion pressure were detected and analyzed. According to the changes of flame shapes, flame propagations in wood dust explosions were divided into three stages including ignition, vertical propagation and free diffusion. Flame propagations for the two smaller particles were dominated by homogeneous combustion, while flame propagation for the largest particles was controlled by heterogeneous combustion, which had been confirmed by individual Damköhler number. All flame propagation velocities for different groups of wood particles in dust explosions were increased at first and then decreased with the augmentation of mass concentration. Flame temperatures and explosion pressures were almost similarly changed. Dust explosions in 50–96 μm wood particles were more intense than in the other two particles, of which the most severe explosion appeared at a mass concentration of 750 g/m³. Meanwhile, flame propagation velocity, flame propagation temperature and explosion pressure reached to the maximum values of 10.45 m/s, 1373 °C and 0.41 MPa. In addition, sensitive concentrations corresponding to the three groups of particles from small to large were 500, 750 and 1000 g/m³, separately, indicating that sensitive concentration in dust explosions of wood particles was elevated with the increase of particle size. Taken together, the finding demonstrated that particle size and mass concentration of wood dusts affected the occurrence and severity of dust explosions, which could provide guidance and reference for the identification, assessment and industrial safety management of wood dust explosions.     

LES – DFSD modelling of vented hydrogen explosions in a small-scale combustion chamber

Accidental explosions are a plausible danger to the chemical process industries. In the event of a gas explosion, any obstacles placed within the path of the flame generate turbulence, which accelerates the transient flame and raises explosion overpressure, posing a safety hazard. This paper presents numerical studies using an in-house computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for lean premixed hydrogen/air flame propagations with an equivalence ratio of 0.7. A laboratory-scale combustion chamber is used with repeated solid obstacles. The transient compressible large eddy simulation (LES) modelling technique combined with a dynamic flame surface density (DFSD) combustion model is used to carry out the numerical simulations in three-dimensional space. The study presented uses eight different baffle configurations with two solid obstructions, which have area blockage ratios of 0.24 and 0.5. The flame speed, maximum rate of pressure-rise as well as peak overpressure magnitude and timing are presented and discussed. Numerical results are validated against available published experimental data. It is concluded that, increasing the solid obstacle area blockage ratio and the number of consecutive baffles results in a raised maximum rate of pressure rise, higher peak explosion overpressure and faster flame propagation. Future model development would require more experimental data, probably in a more congested configuration.     

民居内燃气泄漏爆炸特性及其数值仿真研究进展

为研究民居内可燃气体爆炸规律及特点,预防燃气泄漏爆炸案/事件发生,提高案/事件现场勘验与侦破效率,综述受限空间内燃气爆炸的形成机理和传播特性、现场结构和障碍物对爆炸的影响规律以及爆炸后现场勘验和重建技术方法,阐述数值仿真技术在气体爆炸案件现场勘验和重建中发挥的作用。研究结果表明：民居内燃气爆炸现场特征明显异于传统爆炸类案件现场,尤其是炸点特征存在差异;数值仿真可有效揭示燃气泄漏爆炸的形成、传播和作用机理;目前,燃气爆炸实验研究方法和体系需进一步统一,以提高研究结论普适性。研究结果可为民居内燃气爆炸现场勘验和重建提供技术支持。     

The acceleration of flames in tube explosions with two obstacles as a function of the obstacle separation distance

The separation distance (or pitch) between two successive obstacles or rows of obstacles is an important parameter in the acceleration of flame propagation and increase in explosion severity. Whilst this is generally recognised, it has received little specific attention by investigators. In this work a vented cylindrical vessel 162 mm in diameter 4.5 m long was used to study the effect of separation distance of two low blockage (30%) obstacles. The set up was demonstrated to produce overpressure through the fast flame speeds generated (i.e. in a similar mechanism to vapour cloud explosions). A worst case separation distance was found to be 1.75 m which produced close to 3 bar overpressure and a flame speed of about 500 m/s. These values were of the order of twice the overpressure and flame speed with a double obstacle separated 2.75 m (83 characteristic obstacle length scales) apart. The profile of effects with separation distance was shown to agree with the cold flow turbulence profile determined in cold flows by other researchers. However, the present results showed that the maximum effect in explosions is experienced further downstream than the position of maximum turbulence determined in the cold flow studies. It is suggested that this may be due to the convection of the turbulence profile by the propagating flame. The present results would suggest that in many previous studies of repeated obstacles the separation distance investigated might not have included the worst case set up, and therefore existing explosion protection guidelines may not be derived from worst case scenarios.     

Correlations for blast effects from vented dust explosions

Empirical correlations are often used to estimate safety distances in the event of dust explosions. In Europe, there are two main correlations available in VDI 3673 and EN 14491. Whereas the VDI 3673 correlation is based on experimental investigations of vented dust explosions using large vessels, and assumes an external explosion, the EN 14491 correlation is derived from SKJELTORP et al. internal explosion tests in ammunition storage facility. This paper provides an overview of the experimental studies of vented gas and dust explosion. It aims to highlight the main findings of such studies, while defining the conditions for a secondary explosion to occur and comparing experimental data with the application of standards, in order to propose elements to choose the more appropriate correlation.     

Numerical simulation of gas explosions in linked vessels

The ability of the CFD code AutoReaGas to simulate a gas explosion in two linked vessels was investigated. These explosions present an anomalous destructive power because both peak pressures and rates of pressure rise are much higher than those generated in single vessel explosions. A fair agreement was observed between the computed results and experimental data taken from literature. Moreover, the computed values of the turbulence intensity at varying diameters of the connecting pipe demonstrate that turbulence induced in both vessels represent a major factor affecting the explosion violence.     

A review on hybrid mixture explosions: Safety parameters,explosion regimes and criteria,flame characteristics

The hybrid mixture of combustible dusts and flammable gases/vapours widely exist in various industries, including mining, petrochemical, metallurgical, textile and pharmaceutical. It may pose a higher explosion risk than gas/vapor or dust/mist explosions since the hybrid explosions can still be initiated even though both the gas and the dust concentration are lower than their lower explosion limit (LEL) values. Understanding the explosion threat of hybrid mixtures not only contributes to the inherent safety and sustainability of industrial process design, but promotes the efficiency of loss prevention and mitigation. To date, however, there is no test standard with reliable explosion criteria available to determine the safety parameters of all types of hybrid mixture explosions, nor the flame propagation and quenching mechanism or theoretical explanation behind these parameters. This review presents a state-of-the-art overview of the comprehensive understanding of hybrid mixture explosions mainly in an experimental study level; thereby, the main limitations and challenges to be faced are explored. The discussed main contents include the experimental measurement for the safety parameters of hybrid mixtures (i.e., explosion sensitivity and severity parameters) via typical test apparatuses, explosion regime and criterion of hybrid mixtures, the detailed flame propagation/quenching characteristics behind the explosion severities/sensitivities of hybrid mixtures. This work aims to summarize the essential basics of experimental studies, and to provide the perspectives based on the current research gaps to understand the explosion hazards of hybrid mixtures in-depth.     

Suppression effects of powder suppressants on the explosions of oxyhydrogen gas

Suppression tests of oxyhydrogen gas explosions were performed in an explosion tube with five types of dry powder used as the suppressants. The experimental results showed that the powder with large dust cloud density and small radius has better suppression effect, which agrees well with previous correlative results. Moreover, our results also showed that particles with chemical activity and light material density, their suppression effect are more prominent than that of the inert particles with heavy density. To discover the detailed suppression process of dust powder, governing equations were developed based on the homogeneous reactive two-phase flow. The TVD scheme and the Lax–Wendroff–Rubin scheme were adopted to solve the reactive gas phase and particle phase, respectively. The time splitting technique was employed to handle the stiffness of the coupled equations. Our calculated results showed that the dust cloud has the suppression effect on the explosion of oxyhydrogen gas, and with the increase of dust cloud density or the decrease of particle diameter, its suppression effect become more evident, which is in good agreement with our experimental results, in addition, the numerical results showed that with the same particle diameter, the suppression performance is enhanced with the reduction in particle material density.     

Explosions in closed pipes containing baffles and 90 degree bends

There is a general lack of information on the effects of full-bore obstacles on combustion in the literature, these obstacles are prevalent in many applications and knowledge of their effects on phenomena including burning rate, flame acceleration and DDT is important for the correct placing of explosion safety devices such as flame arresters and venting devices. In this work methane, propane, ethylene and hydrogen–air explosions were investigated in an 18 m long DN150 closed pipe with a 90 degree bend and various baffle obstacles placed at a short distance from the ignition source. After carrying out multiple experiments with the same configuration it was found that a relatively large variance existed in the measured flame speeds and overpressures, this was attributed to a stochastic element in how flames evolved and also how they caused and interacted with turbulence to produce flame acceleration. This led to several experiments being carried out for one configuration in order to obtain a meaningful average. It was shown that a 90 degree bend in a long tube had the ability to enhance flame speeds and overpressures, and shorten the run-up distance to DDT to a varying degree for a number of gases. In terms of the qualitative effects on these parameters they were comparable to baffle type obstacles with a blockage ratios of between 10 and 20%.     

Study of the influence of melamine polyphosphate and aluminum hydroxide on the flame propagation and explosion overpressure of aluminum magnesium alloy dust

When aluminum magnesium alloy dust floats in the air, a certain ignition energy can easily cause an accidental explosion. To prevent and control the occurrence of accidental explosions and reduce the severity of accidents, it is necessary to carry out research on the explosion suppression of aluminum magnesium alloy dust. This paper uses a vertical glass tube experimental device and a 20 L spherical explosive experimental device to carry out experimental studies on the suppression of the flame propagation and explosion overpressure of aluminum magnesium alloy dust with melamine polyphosphate (MPP) and Al(OH)₃. With increasing MPP and Al(OH)₃ concentrations, the flame brightness darkened, the flame velocity and propagation distance gradually decreased, and P_max and (dp/dt)_max decreased significantly. When the amount of MPP added reached 60%, the flame propagation distance decreased to 188 mm, which is a decrease of 68%, and the explosion overpressure decreased to 0.014 MPa, effectively suppressing the explosion of aluminum magnesium alloy dust. The experimental results showed that MPP was more effective than Al(OH)₃ in inhibiting the flame propagation and explosion overpressure of the aluminum magnesium alloy dust. Finally, the inhibitory mechanisms of the MPP and Al(OH)₃ were further investigated. The MPP and Al(OH)₃ endothermic decomposition produced an inert gas, diluted the oxygen concentration and trapped active radicals to terminate the combustion chain reaction.     

Determination of heterogeneous reaction mechanisms: A key milestone in dust explosion modelling

Reaction kinetics is fundamental for modelling the thermal oxidation of a solid phase, in processes such as dust explosions, combustion or gasification. The methodology followed in this study consists in i) the experimental identification of the reaction mechanisms involved in the explosion of organic powders, ii) the proposal of simplified mechanisms of pyrolysis and oxidation, iii) the implementation of the model to assess the explosion severity of organic dusts. Flash pyrolysis and combustion experiments were carried out on starch (22 μm) and cellulose (53 μm) at temperatures ranging from 973 K to 1173 K. The gases generated were collected and analyzed by gas chromatography. In this paper, a semi-global pyrolysis model was developed for reactive systems with low Damköhler number. It is in good agreement with the experimental data and shows that both carbon monoxide and hydrogen are mainly generated during the pyrolysis of the solid, the generation of the latter compound being greatly promoted at high temperature. A simplified combustion model was also proposed by adding two oxidation reactions of the pyrolysis products. In parallel, flame propagation tests were performed in a semi open tube in order to assess the burning velocity of such compounds. The laminar burning velocity of cellulose was determined to be 21 cm s⁻¹. Finally, this model will be integrated to a predictive model of dust explosions and its validation will be based on experimental data obtained using the 20 L explosion sphere. The explosion severity of cellulose was determined and will be used to develop and adjust the predictive model.