A Quantitative Tool for Assessing the Integrity of Southern Coastal California Streams

We developed a benthic macroinvertebrate index of biological integrity (B-IBI) for the semiarid and populous southern California coastal region. Potential reference sites were screened from a pool of 275 sites, first with quantitative GIS landscape analysis at several spatial scales and then with local condition assessments (in-stream and riparian) that quantified stressors acting on study reaches. We screened 61 candidate metrics for inclusion in the B-IBI based on three criteria: sufficient range for scoring, responsiveness to watershed and reach-scale disturbance gradients, and minimal correlation with other responsive metrics. Final metrics included: percent collector-gatherer + collector-filterer individuals, percent noninsect taxa, percent tolerant taxa, Coleoptera richness, predator richness, percent intolerant individuals, and EPT richness. Three metrics had lower scores in chaparral reference sites than in mountain reference sites and were scored on separate scales in the B-IBI. Metrics were scored and assembled into a composite B-IBI, which was then divided into five roughly equal condition categories. PCA analysis was used to demonstrate that the B-IBI was sensitive to composite stressor gradients; we also confirmed that the B-IBI scores were not correlated with elevation, season, or watershed area. Application of the B-IBI to an independent validation dataset (69 sites) produced results congruent with the development dataset and a separate repeatability study at four sites in the region confirmed that the B-IBI scoring is precise. The SoCal B-IBI is an effective tool with strong performance characteristics and provides a practical means of evaluating biotic condition of streams in southern coastal California.     

Assessing options for the development of surface water flood warning in England and Wales

This paper explores the technical options for warning of surface water flooding in England and Wales and presents the results of an Environment Agency funded project. Following the extensive surface water flooding experienced in summer 2007 a rainfall threshold-based Extreme Rainfall Alert (ERA) was piloted by the Met Office and Environment Agency providing initial steps towards the establishment of a warning for some types of surface water flooding. The findings of this paper are based primarily on feedback on technical options from a range of professionals involved in flood forecasting and warning and flood risk management, about the current alerts and about the potential options for developing a more targeted surface water flood warning service. Providing surface water flooding warnings presents a set of technical, forecasting and warning challenges related to the rapid onset of flooding, the localised nature of the flooding, and the linking of rainfall and flood forecasts to flood likelihood and impact on the ground. Some examples of rainfall alerting and surface water flood warning services from other countries are evaluated, as well as a small number of recently implemented local services in England and Wales. Various potential options for implementation of a service are then explored and assessed. The paper concludes that development of a surface water flood warning service for England and Wales is feasible and is likely to be useful to emergency responders and operational agencies, although developing such a service for the pluvial components of this type of flooding is likely to be feasible sooner than for other components of surface water flooding such as that caused by sewers. A targeted surface water flood warning service could be developed for professional emergency responders in the first instance rather than for the public for whom such a service without further operational testing and piloting would be premature.     

Protecting people and property: the influence of land-use planners on flood hazard mitigation in New Urbanist developments

Research suggests that characteristics of local government land-use planners help determine the priority that local communities place on flood hazard mitigation. However, research has not examined the significance of land-use planners' values and role orientations for flood hazard mitigation. Multiple regression analysis is used to examine the influence that land-use planners' values and role orientations have on flood hazard mitigation in a national sample of New Urbanist development projects. Findings indicate that land-use planners' values and role orientations have significant implications for flood hazard mitigation in these projects. The paper recommends that local governments adopt a land-use planning approach to flood hazard mitigation that relies on land-use planners to help direct development away from hazardous portions of development sites.     

Estimating the value of foresight: aggregate analysis of natural hazard mitigation benefits and costs

Hazard mitigation planners claim that foresighted present actions and investments produce significant future benefits. However, they have difficulty in supporting their claims, since previously their evidence typically was derived from individual case studies. Constituents and decision makers are often sceptical, believing that individual cases are either inapplicable to their situation or non-randomly selected to support a particular view. Planners need objective evidence based on a large body of experience to support the case for mitigation. Such is the unique contribution of a recent U.S. study that found that each dollar spent in three federal natural hazard mitigation grant programs (the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Project Impact, and the Flood Mitigation Assistance Program) saves society an average of $4 in future avoided losses. Complementing the aggregate benefit-cost analysis with community-based evaluations, the study yielded insights on how planners can improve long-term community resilience in the face of extreme events. Valuable lessons for mitigation planners and policy makers emerged: the need to consider a wide variety of losses, the importance of mixing qualitative with quantitative analysis, the value of averaging results over a large number of projects, and the need to more explicitly address social issues and data collection in order to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience to cope with twenty-first century hazards.     

Assessing the ecosystem service of air pollutant removal by urban trees in Guangzhou (China)

In Chinese cities, air pollution has become a serious and aggravating environmental problem undermining the sustainability of urban ecosystems and the quality of urban life. Besides technical solutions to abate air pollution, urban vegetation is increasingly recognized as an alternative ameliorative method by removing some pollutants mainly through dry deposition process. This paper assesses the capability and monetary value of this ecosystem service in Guangzhou city in South China. The results indicated an annual removal of SO(2), NO(2) and total suspended particulates at about 312.03Mg, and the benefits were valued at RMB90.19 thousand (US$1.00=RMB8.26). More removal was realized by recreational land use due to a higher tree cover. Higher concentration of pollutants in the dry winter months induced more removal. The lower cost of pollution abatement in China generated a relatively subdued monetary value of this environmental benefit in comparison with developed countries. Younger districts with more extensive urban trees stripped more pollutants from the air, and this capacity was anticipated to increase further as their trees gradually reach final dimensions and establish a greater tree cover. Tree cover and pollutant concentration constitute the main factors in pollutant removal by urban trees. The efficiency of atmospheric cleansing by trees in congested Chinese cities could be improved by planting more trees other than shrubs or grass, diversifying species composition and biomass structure, and providing sound green space management. The implications for greenery design were discussed with a view to maximizing this ecosystem service in Chinese cities and other developing metropolises.     

Assessing Societal Impacts When Planning Restoration of Large Alluvial Rivers: A Case Study of the Sacramento River Project, California

Studies have shown that ecological restoration projects are more likely to gain public support if they simultaneously increase important human services that natural resources provide to people. River restoration projects have the potential to influence many of the societal functions (e.g., flood control, water quality) that rivers provide, yet most projects fail to consider this in a comprehensive manner. Most river restoration projects also fail to take into account opportunities for revitalization of large-scale river processes, focusing instead on opportunities presented at individual parcels. In an effort to avoid these pitfalls while planning restoration of the Sacramento River, we conducted a set of coordinated studies to evaluate societal impacts of alternative restoration actions over a large geographic area. Our studies were designed to identify restoration actions that offer benefits to both society and the ecosystem and to meet the information needs of agency planning teams focusing on the area. We worked with local partners and public stakeholders to design and implement studies that assessed the effects of alternative restoration actions on flooding and erosion patterns, socioeconomics, cultural resources, and public access and recreation. We found that by explicitly and scientifically melding societal and ecosystem perspectives, it was possible to identify restoration actions that simultaneously improve both ecosystem health and the services (e.g., flood protection and recreation) that the Sacramento River and its floodplain provide to people. Further, we found that by directly engaging with local stakeholders to formulate, implement, and interpret the studies, we were able to develop a high level of trust that ultimately translated into widespread support for the project.     

Assessing vulnerability of selected sectors under environmental tax reform: the issue of pricing power

Environmental tax reform could bear heavily on manufacturing sectors that are energy intensive and highly traded, in particular if their options for adapting technology are limited. However, to the extent that such sectors can pass on the cost of the environmental taxes through higher prices charged to their customers, they will not suffer a lasting drop in profitability or output. To assess pricing power in key sectors, a model of long-run price setting behaviour is specified and tested. Significant and plausible results emerged from this exercise. Of the six sectors analysed, the Basic metals sector revealed least pricing power and, hence, greatest vulnerability, and the Non-metallic minerals sector revealed most pricing power. The results indicated that the world price, proxied by the US price, was less of a constraint than the EU price, proxied by the German price. Thus, international competitiveness fears are reduced not just where there is good potential for adapting technology but also if application of environmental tax reform is EU-wide.     

Assessing the US Clean Water Act 303(d) listing process for determining impairment of a waterbody

This study evaluated the US Clean Water Act (CWA) Section 303(d) listing and delisting processes, based on historical and current federal and state guidelines, to determine whether there are regional differences in water quality assessment criteria used by various states to determine impairment of a waterbody for inclusion in the 303(d) list. A review of almost 50 total maximum daily load (TMDL) and delisting documents revealed that the basis for listing or delisting a waterbody varies considerably and that, in many cases, determination of impairment was based on insufficient water quality information. Historical USEPA guidance on the 303(d) listing and delisting processes has been generally broad, resulting in wide interpretation of the assessment criteria by various states. This has led to unclear or conflicting listing methodologies among states, leading to inconsistencies in impairment determination. Common problems include inconsistent data quality and quantity, differences in frequency of monitoring, variable interpretation of narrative water quality standards, and differences in specificity of implementation and monitoring plans, resulting in significant difference in the basis for listing and delisting waterbodies. In response, several states have taken the initiative to provide much more specific guidance for their internal agencies. Listing and delisting criteria are generally clearer at the state level, but the development of differing state guidance documents has resulted in diversity in the development of the 303(d) lists and in the process of delisting a waterbody. While state guidelines are better able to address local considerations, such as variations in climate, landuse, and water quality objectives, as well as social and economic preferences, the variation in listing criteria has led to inconsistencies across state boundaries in the levels of attainment of national water quality objectives. For stakeholders that participate in the 303(d) listing process within a particular state, these types of discrepancies may not have a significant impact. However, these inconsistencies can lead to confusion for some stakeholders who participate in the process in multiples states, and must deal with differing and sometimes conflicting requirements depending on the location of their facilities.     

Assessing the role of learning devices and geovisualisation tools for collective action in natural resource management: Experiences from Vietnam

In northern Vietnam uplands the successive policy reforms that accompanied agricultural decollectivisation triggered very rapid changes in land use in the 1990s. From a centralized system of natural resource management, a multitude of individual strategies emerged which contributed to new production interactions among farming households, changes in landscape structures, and conflicting strategies among local stakeholders. Within this context of agrarian transition, learning devices can help local communities to collectively design their own course of action towards sustainable natural resource management. This paper presents a collaborative approach combining a number of participatory methods and geovisualisation tools (e.g., spatially explicit multi-agent models and role-playing games) with the shared goal to analyse and represent the interactions between: (i) decision-making processes by individual farmers based on the resource profiles of their farms; (ii) the institutions which regulate resource access and usage; and (iii) the biophysical and socioeconomic environment. This methodological pathway is illustrated by a case study in Bac Kan Province where it successfully led to a communication platform on natural resource management. In a context of rapid socioeconomic changes, learning devices and geovisualisation tools helped embed the participatory approach within a process of community development. The combination of different tools, each with its own advantages and constraints, proved highly relevant for supporting collective natural resource management.     

Assessing the environmental performance of English arable and livestock holdings using data from the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN)

Agri-environment schemes (AESs) have been implemented across EU member states in an attempt to reconcile agricultural production methods with protection of the environment and maintenance of the countryside. To determine the extent to which such policy objectives are being fulfilled, participating countries are obliged to monitor and evaluate the environmental, agricultural and socio-economic impacts of their AESs. However, few evaluations measure precise environmental outcomes and critically, there are no agreed methodologies to evaluate the benefits of particular agri-environmental measures, or to track the environmental consequences of changing agricultural practices. In response to these issues, the Agri-Environmental Footprint project developed a common methodology for assessing the environmental impact of European AES. The Agri-Environmental Footprint Index (AFI) is a farm-level, adaptable methodology that aggregates measurements of agri-environmental indicators based on Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) techniques. The method was developed specifically to allow assessment of differences in the environmental performance of farms according to participation in agri-environment schemes. The AFI methodology is constructed so that high values represent good environmental performance. This paper explores the use of the AFI methodology in combination with Farm Business Survey data collected in England for the Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN), to test whether its use could be extended for the routine surveillance of environmental performance of farming systems using established data sources. Overall, the aim was to measure the environmental impact of three different types of agriculture (arable, lowland livestock and upland livestock) in England and to identify differences in AFI due to participation in agri-environment schemes. However, because farm size, farmer age, level of education and region are also likely to influence the environmental performance of a holding, these factors were also considered. Application of the methodology revealed that only arable holdings participating in agri-environment schemes had a greater environmental performance, although responses differed between regions. Of the other explanatory variables explored, the key factors determining the environmental performance for lowland livestock holdings were farm size, farmer age and level of education. In contrast, the AFI value of upland livestock holdings differed only between regions. The paper demonstrates that the AFI methodology can be used readily with English FADN data and therefore has the potential to be applied more widely to similar data sources routinely collected across the EU-27 in a standardised manner.     

Growth management of vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) under Mediterranean conditions

In spite of the advantages of Vetiver grass in light of environmental aspects, this plant is not used in the Mediterranean region. The objectives of the present study were: (i) to elucidate growth parameters and establishment of Vetiver under Mediterranean conditions suitable for its various environmental applications; and (ii) to develop management practices for growing vetiver under Mediterranean conditions. In greenhouse experiments conducted under controlled conditions it was found that, in general, increasing the minimum/maximum temperatures to 21-29 degrees C significantly increased plant height. In the Mediterranean region, this range of air temperatures is obtained mainly during the summer, from June to September. For air temperatures up to 15-23 degrees C the effect of day length on plant height was insignificant, whereas in air temperature >15-23 degrees C, the plant heights under long day conditions were significantly higher than under short day. The number of sprouts per plant increased exponentially with increasing air temperature, and was not significantly affected by the day length at any air temperature range. In open fields, the heights of irrigated vetiver plants were significantly higher than those of rain-fed plants. It was concluded that, once they were established, vetiver plants could survive the dry summer of the Mediterranean region under rain-fed conditions, but they would be shorter than under irrigation. Cutting or burning of the plant foliage during the spring did not improve the survival of vetiver during the dry summer. In order to obtain fast growth of vetiver and to increase the possibility of its using the rainwater, the plants should be planted in the winter, during February and March. However, under this regime, the vetiver plant cannot be used as a soil stabilizer during the first winter, because the plant is still small. In contrast, under irrigation it is advantageous to plant vetiver at the beginning of the summer; the plant then has sufficient time to grow and develop before the beginning of the winter, so that its effect as a soil stabilizer in the following wet winter could be maximal. It was found that vetiver could grow in a wide range of substrates, such as: sandy soil, loamy sand, clay soil, crushed limestone, sandy clay loam, and tuff/peat mixture.     

Oxidative remobilization of biogenic uranium(IV) precipitates: effects of iron(II) and pH

The oxidative remobilization of uranium from biogenic U(IV) precipitates was investigated in bioreduced sediment suspensions in contact with atmospheric O2 with an emphasis on the influence of Fe(II) and pH on the rate and extent of U release from the solid to the aqueous phase. The sediment was collected from the U.S. Department of Energy Field Research Center (FRC) site at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Biogenic U(IV) precipitates and bioreduced sediment were generated through anaerobic incubation with a dissimilatory metal reducing bacterium Shewanella putrefaciens strain CN32. The oxidative remobilization of freshly prepared and 1-yr aged biogenic U(IV) was conducted in 0.1 mol/L NaNO3 electrolyte with variable pH and Fe(II) concentrations. Biogenic U(IV)O2(s) was released into the aqueous phase with the highest rate and extent at pH 4 and 9, while the U remobilization was the lowest at circumneutral pH. Increasing Fe(II) significantly decreased U remobilization to the aqueous phase. From 70 to 100% of the U in the sediments used in all the tests was extractable at the experiment termination (41 d) with a bicarbonate solution (0.2 mol/L), indicating that biogenic U(IV) was oxidized regardless of Fe(II) concentration and pH. Sorption experiments and modeling calculations indicated that the inhibitive effect of Fe(II) on U(IV) oxidative remobilization was consistent with the Fe(III) oxide precipitation and U(VI) sorption to this secondary phase.     

Predicting the economic costs and property value losses attributed to sudden oak death damage in California (2010-2020)

Phytophthora ramorum, cause of sudden oak death, is a quarantined, non-native, invasive forest pathogen resulting in substantial mortality in coastal live oak (Quercus agrifolia) and several other related tree species on the Pacific Coast of the United States. We estimate the discounted cost of oak treatment, removal, and replacement on developed land in California communities using simulations of P. ramorum spread and infection risk over the next decade (2010-2020). An estimated 734 thousand oak trees occur on developed land in communities in the analysis area. The simulations predict an expanding sudden oak death (SOD) infestation that will likely encompass most of northwestern California and warrant treatment, removal, and replacement of more than 10 thousand oak trees with discounted cost of $7.5 million. In addition, we estimate the discounted property losses to single family homes of $135 million. Expanding the land base to include developed land outside as well as inside communities doubles the estimates of the number of oak trees killed and the associated costs and losses. The predicted costs and property value losses are substantial, but many of the damages in urban areas (e.g. potential losses from increased fire and safety risks of the dead trees and the loss of ecosystem service values) are not included.     

Environmental reporting requirements under the EU: eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS)

The fifth Action Programme on the Environment: Towards Sustainability, defines European Union (EU) environmental policy until the year 2000 and emphasises the need for greater disclosure of environmental information. This paper discusses the Eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS), and EU market based instrument designed to bring more industrial environmental performance data into the public domain. The paper discusses the purpose of the Regulation's environmental statement identifying the potential audiences and their requirements. Using six corporate environmental reports, the paper analyzes how these meet the Regulation's reporting requirements and what modifications would be needed in current reporting trends. The paper concludes that existing reporting requirements will need to change to satisfy EMAS requirements and the increasing public demands for industrial environmental performance information.Ruth Hillary successfully completed a MSc in Environmental Technology at Imperial College, University of London, and is currently undertaking a doctorate to continue her research into the fields of environmental auditing and environmental management. She was placed at the European Commission's Industry and Environment Division of DG XI where she worked on the draft Eco-management and audit Regulation during its progress towards adoption and application. She is the Series Editor for the Business and the Environment Practitioner Series, a series of practical business reports addressing current and emerging environmental topics of importance to companies, and has recently published a reportThe Eco-management and audit Scheme-A Practical Guide. She has also published many papers on the subjects of environmental auditing and the EU Eco-management and audit scheme.     

Assessing hydrological impact of potential land use change through hydrological and land use change modeling for the Kishwaukee River basin (USA)

We connected a cellular, dynamic, spatial urban growth model and a semi-distributed continuous hydrology model to quantitatively predict streamflow in response to possible future urban growth at a basin scale. The main goal was to demonstrate the utility of the approach for informing public planning policy and investment choices. The Hydrological Simulation Program-Fortran (HSPF) was set up and calibrated for the Kishwaukee River basin in the Midwestern USA and was repeatedly run with various land use scenarios generated either by the urban growth model (LEAMluc) or hypothetically. The results indicate that (1) the land use scenarios generated by LEAMluc result in little changes in total runoff but some noticeable changes in surface flow; (2) the argument that low flows tend to decrease with more urbanized areas in a basin was confirmed in this study but the selection of indicators for low flows can result in misleading conclusions; (3) dynamic simulation modeling by connecting a distributed land use change model and a semi-distributed hydrological model can be a good decision support tool demanding reasonable amount of efforts and capable of long-term scenario-based assessments.     

Adsorption of Pb and Cd on the natural surface coatings (NSCs) in the presence of organochlorine pesticides: a preliminary investigation

Adsorption of Pb and Cd in the presence and absence of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) on natural surface coatings (NSCs), which were collected in the Nanhu Lake in Changchun, China, was measured in order to investigate the effect of the OCPs on the adsorption of heavy metals on the NSCs. Adsorption of Pb/Cd was carried out under controlled laboratory conditions (mineral salt solution with defined species, ionic strength 0.05 mol/l, 25 degrees C and pH 6.0) with initial Pb and Cd concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 mol/l. The classical Langmuir adsorption isotherm was applied to estimate the equilibrium coefficients of the adsorption of Pb and Cd on the NSCs. Adsorption interference between Pb/Cd and the OCPs on the NSCs indicated that the adsorption of Pb/Cd on the NSCs was influenced by the OCPs, and competitive adsorption between Pb and the OCPs was observed while adsorption of Cd was enhanced by addition of the OCPs. Adsorption data fit the Langmuir isotherm well for the NSCs treated with the OCPs at different equilibrium concentrations. The results showed that the amount of adsorbed Pb decreased by more than 40% while the amount of adsorbed Cd increased by over 60% with an increase in the initial concentrations of the OCPs ranging from 0 to 5.0 microg/l and that adsorption of Pb/Cd on the NSCs was strongly affected by the OCPs. This preliminary study highlights the importance of the OCPs on the NSCs in controlling the transport, fate, biogeochemistry, bioavailability and toxicity of trace metals in aquatic environments.     

Change point analysis of phosphorus trends in the Illinois River (Oklahoma) demonstrates the effects of watershed management

Detecting water quality improvements following watershed management changes is complicated by flow-dependent concentrations and nonlinear or threshold responses that are difficult to detect with traditional statistical techniques. In this study, we evaluated the long-term trends (1997-2009) in total P (TP) concentrations in the Illinois River of Oklahoma, and some of its major tributaries, using flow-adjusted TP concentrations and regression tree analysis to identify specific calendar dates in which change points in P trends may have occurred. Phosphorus concentrations at all locations were strongly correlated with stream flow. Flow-adjusted TP concentrations increased at all study locations in the late 1990s, but this trend was related to a change in monitoring practices where storm flow samples were specifically targeted after 1998. Flow-adjusted TP concentrations decreased in the two Illinois River sites after 2003. This change coincided with a significant decrease in effluent TP concentrations originating with one of the largest municipal wastewater treatment facilities in the basin. Conversely, flow-adjusted TP concentrations in one tributary increased, but this stream received treated effluent from a wastewater facility where effluent TP did not decrease significantly over the study period. Results of this study demonstrate how long-term trends in stream TP concentrations are difficult to quantify without consistent long-term monitoring strategies and how flow adjustment is likely mandatory for examining these trends. Furthermore, the study demonstrates how detecting changes in long-term water quality data sets requires statistical methods capable of identifying change point and nonlinear responses.