The potential effect of ISO 14000 standards on environmental audit training in the United States

Training has been an important component of the environmental audit profession since its outset some 15–20 years ago. Training and education have taken on a variety of forms—from audit texts and articles, to formal courses, to videotapes, to on-the-job training programs. These efforts have helped to advance the sophistication of environmental auditing over the past few years. Now, with the advent of the international ISO 14012 Environmental Auditor Qualification Guidelines,¹ the auditing profession in the United States and around the world likely will be transformed in the near future. In fact, many organizations are now reengineering their programs in anticipation of the emerging Guidelines. The expected transformation holds for training and education programs as well. This article suggests some of the ways in which environmental audit training is likely to be reshaped as a result of ISO 14012. Offerors of training courses and seminars would be wise to anticipate the changes and modify their programs accordingly. A quick response could provide a competitive advantage. Moreover, corporate audit program managers should conduct critical evaluations of commercial offerings to assure that the programs' contents are consistent with ISO 14012 “auditor certification” expectations.     

Framing Dynamics and Political Gridlock: The Curious Case of Hydraulic Fracturing in New York

‘Fracking’ was on New York's agenda since 2008, yet no decision was made about it until late 2014. The gridlock is an intriguing puzzle given that the Marcellus shale is considered a ‘world class’ energy supply, and development has been aggressive in other US states. While policy scholars typically conceptualize gridlock as policy stability, this paper examines it as a dynamic process by which competing discourse coalitions engage in interactive framing processes that (re)structure the discussion. This suggests that the interaction between contending coalitions influences gridlock. Yet, we lack knowledge about interactive framing between competing coalitions during policy controversies. Our main finding is that a central mechanism of gridlock is the production of conflict through interactive framing dynamics that deny a shared discursive space capable of ushering in a consensus, or reasoned agreement. In New York, this contest evolved from a policy consensus about the economic benefits of fracking to policy negotiation that incorporated environmental threats, and to prolonged policy controversy in which competing discourse coalitions contested notions of fracking in relation to energy production, environmental protection, public health, economic development, and governance. While a ban has been instituted, the failure to bridge discourse coalitions suggests that controversy will persist unless meaning disputes are resolved.     

Taking advantage of storm and waste water retention basins as part of water use minimization in industrial sites

A methodology for water use minimization has been developed by the Clean Technology Network of Bahia over a 10 year period in joint cooperative programs with the chemical, petrochemical and copper metallurgy industries located in the largest Industrial Complex in Latin America, in Camaçari, Bahia, Brazil. The methodology comprises a set of tools including reconciled aqueous stream balances, database of aqueous streams; large scale training leading to the identification of water minimization alternatives in the processes, water reuse optimization approaches; geographical information systems as well as, consideration of the region's hydro and hydro-geological characteristics. The results of a study carried out to assess the possibility of using storm and wastewaters for industrial use is presented in this paper. The inorganic system is composed by three water reservoirs (basins) receiving stormwater contaminated with inorganic effluents, and occasionally with organics. These basins have been operated to control water flow inputs according to the capacity of the pumping outlet systems before their discharge to a submarine outfall. A mass balance was performed with historical updated data to assess water availability from the basins based on the daily volume variation and flow rate of inorganic effluent from 2001 to 2007. The study identified the possibility of recovering about 1140 m³/h of the overall 5400 m³/h consumed by the Industrial Complex at the moment. Organizational changes in the present effluent disposal and stormwater harvest systems will be required in order to maximize water recovery for industrial use.     

Expanding the benefits of environmental management systems through DFE

Industry's role in environmental protection is changing and growing. Increasing evidence shows that a corporation's understanding and response to environmental issues and concerns can have strategically important consequences for some kinds of businesses.¹ Focusing on concepts of prevention, industry has developed and struggled with a number of environmental approaches, all of which attempt to link the environment with common business practice. Industry has followed and in some cases embraced concepts and approaches like sustainable development, eco-efficiency, green manufacturing, pollution prevention, and extended product responsibility. A particularly timely and promising strategy to reduce the environmental impact of both manufacturing and product use while enhancing business success is the integration of environmental management systems (EMS) with design for the environment (DFE) efforts. A desirable relationship can and should exist between DFE and EMS. This relationship has not been well understood, but is crucial to fulfill the promise of each. In application, the institutionalization of DFE in an organization is difficult and tenuous at best. Some authors suggest that management issues block the implementation of DFE.² Others say that DFE has not been institutionalized to the extent that pollution prevention has.³ This article suggests that through an explicit connection between an EMS and DFE, DFE can extend the promise of EMS to reduce industry's environmental impact and produce business success, and it can do so in an ongoing way. The authors will show the importance of an EMS/DFE linkage, suggest company types that might benefit from investigating these approaches, and then review a series of DFE tool types.     

Qualitative assessment on premature human mortality due to the emission of fine particulate matter from the Matarbari coal power plant

This study reports the probability of increased mortality of people within the political border of Bangladesh due to the emission of fine particulate matter with diameters of 2.5 microns or less (PM_2.5) from the Matarbari coal power plant (MCPP). A Gaussian plume dispersion model has been used for this estimation. The PM_2.5 emission rate data are unavailable as the construction of MCPP is still in its initial stage; therefore, the anticipated PM_2.5 emission rate has been estimated based on data from a number of coal‐fired power plants in India and China. To make this study more meaningful, two different emission rates have been considered representing the best‐case and worst‐case scenarios. In both cases, the intake fraction has been found to be 0.12×10^?2, and the value of relative risk varies between 1.134 and 1.374, respectively. Finally, it is estimated that approximately 11.5 million people inside Bangladesh will be exposed to the PM_2.5 emission from MCPP, and between 7,667 and 17,675 people will experience premature death every year.     

Assessing the accumulation of construction waste generation during residential building construction works

The difficulty of dealing with construction and demolition waste (CDW) on construction sites is not new and continues to be an environmental problem. Understanding the waste generated in a construction work is essential to optimize CDW management. Therefore, any tool used for establishing an estimation of the CDW that will be generated should be considered as an alternative to achieve real solutions pursuing sustainability. This paper presents the evolution of CDW flow generation in the construction of new residential buildings, and has identified that the construction activity is increasing the waste generation. In an attempt to find some solutions and provide improved alternatives, several building sites have been analysed in order to quantify the estimation of CDW generated. Results show that when using plasterboard walls the CDW generation, per m² of built surface can be reduced up to 15.94% compared to the use of traditional brick partitions. In addition, a model describing the accumulation of CDW throughout the project duration is proposed. This model states that CDW mainly accumulates in the middle stages of the project. This study allows an estimation of the amount of CDW to be generated in a building construction site, helping to plan the number and size of containers required at any moment of the construction process, as well as the space required for a proper CDW management.     

LONG-TERM EQUILIBRIUM PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATIONS IN THE EVERGLADES AS PREDICTED BY A VOLLENWEIDER-TYPE MODEL1

ABSTRACT: Anthropogenic phosphorus loading, mainly from the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), is believed to be the primary cause of eutrophication in the Everglades. The state of Florida has adopted a plan for addressing Everglades eutrophication problems by reducing anthropogenic phosphorus loads through the implementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs) in agricultural watersheds and the construction of stormwater treatment areas (STAs). Optimizing the effectiveness of these STAs for reducing phosphorus concentrations from agricultural runoff is a critical component of the District's comprehensive Everglades protection effort. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a simple tool that can be used to estimate STAs’performance and evaluate management alternatives considered in the Everglades restoration efforts. The model was tested at two south Florida wetland sites and then was used to simulate several management alternatives and predict ecosystem responses to reduced external phosphorus (P) loadings. Good agreement between model predictions at the two wetland sites and actual observations indicated that the model can be used as a management tool to predict wetlands’response to reductions in external phosphorus load and long-term P levels in aquatic ecosystems. Model results showed that lowering P content of the Everglades Protection Area (EPA) depends on reducing P loads originating from EAA discharges, not from rainfall. Assuming no action is taken (e.g., no BMPs or STAs implemented), the steady state model predicted that the average concentration within the modeled area of the marsh would reach 20 μg L^?1 within five years. With an 85 percent reduction in P loading, the steady-state model predicted that Water Conservation Area 2A (WCA-2A) P concentration will equilibrate at approximately 10 μ L^?1, while elimination of all loadings is projected to further reduce marsh P to values less than 10 μg L^?1.     

Using Regression Tree Analysis to Improve Predictions of Low-Flow Nitrate and Chloride in Willamette River Basin Watersheds

The use of regression tree analysis is examined as a tool to evaluate hydrologic and land use factors that affect nitrate and chloride stream concentrations during low-flow conditions. Although this data mining technique has been used to assess a range of ecological parameters, it has not previously been used for stream water quality analysis. Regression tree analysis was conducted on nitrate and chloride data from 71 watersheds in the Willamette River Basin to determine whether this method provides a greater predictive ability compared to standard multiple linear regression, and to elucidate the potential roles of controlling mechanisms. Metrics used in the models included a variety of watershed-scale landscape indices and land use classifications. Regression tree analysis significantly enhanced model accuracy over multiple linear regression, increasing nitrate R ² values from 0.38 to 0.75 and chloride R ² values from 0.64 to 0.85 and as indicated by the ΔAIC value. These improvements are primarily attributed to the ability for regression trees to more effectively handle interactions and manage non-linear functions associated with watershed heterogeneity within the basin. Whereas hydrologic factors governed the conservative chloride tracer in the model, land use dominated control of nitrate concentrations. Watersheds containing higher agricultural activity did not necessarily yield high nitrate concentrations, but agricultural areas combined with either small proportions of forested land or greater urbanization generated nitrate levels far exceeding water quality standards. Although further refinements are recommended, we conclude that regression tree analysis presents water resource managers a promising tool that improves on the predictive ability of standard statistical methods, provides insight into controlling mechanisms, and helps identify catchment characteristics associated with water quality impairment.     

RESEARCH INTO THE EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE,LEA VALLEY,LONDON ENGLAND1

ABSTRACT: Large-scale groundwater abstraction from the Cretaceous Chalk/Lower Tertiary Basal Sands aquifer system of the London Basin in the last 150 years has developed storage of more than 1000 Mm³. Limited operational recharge was undertaken in the 1950's encouraging further detailed study of the wider possibilities. Following a comprehensive hydrogeological reappraisal, an economic and engineering study and pilot-scale experiments, the Lea Valley has been shown to have the greatest potential for recharge. Artificial recharge into the Chalk at a rate of 9000 m³/d appears possible, through acidised 900 mm diameter boreholes. An understanding of the degree of interconnection between the Chalk and Basal Sands and of the causes of changes in quality of recharged water during storage was shown to be of particular importance to the successful operation of any recharge scheme using this system. A two-layer numerical groundwater model of the 800 km² area and a surface/groundwater simulation model have been used to assist with the design of the 84,000 m³/d prototype scheme, and will also help in assessing its efficiency. The models will ultimately be used to manage the operation of the first stage development, now coming into use.     

Environmental consequences of recycling aluminum old scrap in a global market

Nowadays, aluminum scrap is traded globally. This has increased the need to analyze the flows of aluminum scrap, as well as to determine the environmental consequences from aluminum recycling. The objective of this work is to determine the greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions of the old scrap collected and sorted for recycling, considering the market interactions. The study focused on Spain as a representative country for Europe. We integrate material flow analysis (MFA) with consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA) in order to determine the most likely destination for the old scrap and the most likely corresponding process affected. Based on this analysis, it is possible to project some scenarios and to quantify the GHG emissions (generated and avoided) associated with old scrap recycling within a global market. From the MFA results, we projected that the Spanish demand for aluminum products will be met mainly with an increase in primary aluminum imports, and the excess of old scrap not used in Spain will be exported in future years, mainly to Asia. Depending on the scenario and on the marginal source of primary aluminum considered, the GHG emission estimates varied between −18,140 kg of CO₂ eq. t⁻¹ and −8427 of CO₂ eq. t⁻¹ of old scrap collected. More GHG emissions are avoided with an increase in export flows, but the export of old scrap should be considered as the loss of a key resource, and in the long term, it will also affect the semifinished products industry. Mapping the flows of raw materials and waste, as well as quantifying the GHG impacts derived from recycling, has become an essential prerequisite to consistent development from a linear toward a circular economy (CE).     

Energy recovery from municipal solid waste in Nigeria and its economic and environmental implications

An assessment of potential biomass resources in Nigeria for the production of methane and power generation is presented in this paper. Nigeria, as an underdeveloped and populous country, needs an uninterrupted source of energy. The country's energy problems have crippled large sectors of the economy. The percentage of people connected to the national grid is 40%. These 40% experience electricity supply failure on average 10–12 hours daily. Energy generation from municipal solid waste (MSW) is an effective MSW management strategy. Yearly waste generation has increased from 6,471 gigagrams (Gg) in 1959 to 26,600 Gg in 2015. This amount is projected to reach 36,250 Gg per year by 2030. Methane emission for 2015 was 491 Gg, and it is projected to reach 669 Gg in 2030. These values translate to 3.48 × 10⁹ kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity for 2015, with a projected 4.74 × 10⁹ kWh by 2030. The revenue to be derived from the electricity that is generated could have been US$365.04 × 10⁶ for 2015, and it is estimated that it will reach US$473.82 × 10⁶ by 2030. It was found that methane emissions from MSW increased with time, and capturing this gas for energy production will lead to a sustainable waste management.     

Calculating the cost of greenhouse gas emission reductions (heading into kyoto protocol negotiations in Buenos Aires)

Negotiations toward an international regime to control anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases have been under way for more than a decade. The Kyoto Protocol¹ to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)² reflects a basic intergovernmental agreement that predicted warming and volatile weather events are sufficient threats to justify mandatory measures. Yet with climate change negotiations set to resume November 2 through 13, 1998, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, at the Fourth Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP-4), many major industries continue to believe that the disproportionate costs of controls will precipitate severe economic consequences, and that mandatory measures may never actually be implemented, or at least will be deferred for many years. This article examines why some business decision makers and their environmental managers remain unwilling or unable to make concrete plans to achieve the significant reductions that the Kyoto Protocol facially requires. Indeed, there has been surprising inattention at the boardroom and plant levels to the concepts and details of the agreement. This is reinforced to some extent by the apparently dim prospects for ratification in the near term by the U.S. Senate, in which the treaty today would likely not gain a majority, much less the necessary two-thirds support.     

The electric utility business case for investigating EMS: ISO 14000 and beyond

This article will focus on how a systems approach can be used as a strategic tool for environmental improvement that makes sense from a perspective of bottom-line financial performance. The author will discuss some real-world experience concerning how electric utilities are attempting to align environmental management more closely with business management theory and practice. The ISO 14000 standards have been proposed and, in many instances, finalized as global voluntary standards. How important will they be to the U.S. electric utility sector? ISO 14001, the EMS standard, has been promoted as a necessary “certificate” for those who sell products and/or services overseas. In fact, to be of value to most organizations, the standard must show that it can make a positive financial contribution, whether the service or product is marketed globally, nationally, or locally. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Economic assessment of microbial biodiesel production using heterotrophic yeasts

The production of biodiesel using oleaginous microorganisms is investigated as promising alternative to produce a truly sustainable and renewable transportation fuel. While the feasibility of this approach has been shown on the laboratory scale, a commercial scale implementation is to date inhibited due to economic restraints. In order to evaluate the current cost situation and to develop suggestions to reduce production related costs, a simple cost analysis of the proposed microbial oil production process has been carried out. For closed fermentation in large-scale fermenters a break-even price of 2,350 US$ t^–1 for microbial oil was calculated. In the context of a sensitivity analysis it was shown that especially alterations in capital cost can lead to overall cost reductions. Accordingly, an open pond cultivation approach was designed, cutting the cost for equipment almost in half and decreasing the break-even price to 1,723 US$ t^–1. However, these reductions are only feasible when stable biomass and lipid yields can be ensured in open-pond systems, because the sensitivity analysis identified these yield parameters as leading factors influencing the break-even price. Even under very optimistic assumptions, it was not possible to reduce the break-even price below that of conventional plant oils as competitive products. Therefore, economic feasibility of the process will probably only occur if on one hand considerable technical development and efficiency improvements of the production process are made while on the other hand plant and crude oil prices are continuously increasing.     

Modeling of Vertical Solute Dispersion in a Sediment Bed Enhanced by Wave‐Induced Interstitial Flow1

Abstract: Mass (solute) transport in a stream or lake sediment bed has a significant effect on chemical mass balances and microbial activities in the sediment. A “1D vertical dispersion model” is a useful tool to analyze or model solute transfer between river or lake water and a sediment bed. Under a motionless water column, solute transfer into and within the sediment bed is by molecular diffusion. However, surface waves or bed forms create periodic pressure waves along the sediment/water interface, which in turn induce flows in the pores of the sediment bed. The enhancement of solute transport by these interstitial periodic flows in the pores has been incorporated in a 1D depth‐dependent “enhanced dispersion coefficient (D_E).” Typically, D_E diminishes exponentially with depth in the sediment bed. Relationships have been developed to estimate D_E as a function of the characteristics of sediment (particle size, hydraulic conductivity, and porosity) and pressure waves (wave length and height). In this paper, we outline and illustrate the calculation of D_E as well as the penetration depth (d_p) of the flow effect. Sample applications to illustrate the computational procedure are provided for dissolved oxygen transfer into a stream gravel bed and release of phosphorus from a lake bed. The sensitivity of the results to input parameter values is illustrated, and compared with the errors obtained when interstitial flow is ignored. Maximum values of D_E near the sediment surface can be on the order of 1 cm²/s in a stream gravel bed with standing waves, and 0.001 cm²/s in a fine sand lake bed under progressive surface waves, much larger than molecular diffusion coefficients.     

Indicators for managing biosolids in Ireland

Sustainable development indicators (SDIs) have emerged as a tool to measure progress towards sustainable development for a number of fields. However, no indicator initiative to date has been aimed at biosolids management at local authority, regional or national levels. This paper presents a study where stakeholders involved in the management of biosolids in Ireland participated in the development of SDIs for managing biosolids at the local/regional level. A significant 81% of participating stakeholders find SDIs either 'useful' or 'very useful' as a tool for managing biosolids. A suite of 22 indicators has been developed and arranged according to the driving force-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) indicator framework. The indicators address all the domains of biosolids management namely, production, quality, cost, legislation/regulation, training/research and recycling/disposal. The stakeholder approach is recognition that no effective indicator set can be developed without the input of stakeholders.     

Loss Rates from Lake Powell and Their Impact on Management of the Colorado River

As demand for water in the southwestern United States increases and climate change potentially decreases the natural flows in the Colorado River system, there will be increased need to optimize the water supply. Lake Powell is a large reservoir with potentially high loss rates to bank storage and evaporation. Bank storage is estimated as a residual in the reservoir water balance. Estimates of local inflow contribute uncertainty to estimates of bank storage. Regression analyses of local inflow with gaged tributaries have improved the estimate of local inflow. Using a stochastic estimate of local inflow based on the standard error of the regression estimator and of gross evaporation based on observed variability at Lake Mead, a reservoir water balance was used to estimate that more than 14.8 billion cubic meters (Gm³) has been stored in the banks, with a 90% probability that the value is actually between 11.8 and 18.5 Gm³. Groundwater models developed by others, observed groundwater levels, and simple transmissivity calculations confirm these bank storage estimates. Assuming a constant bank storage fraction for simulations of the future may cause managers to underestimate the actual losses from the reservoir. Updated management regimes which account more accurately for bank storage and evaporation could save water that will otherwise be lost to the banks or evaporation.     

The life cycle of rice: LCA of alternative agri-food chain management systems in Vercelli (Italy)

The Vercelli rice district in northern Italy plays a key role in the agri-food industry in a country which accounts for more than 50% of the EU rice production and exports roughly 70%. However, although wealth and jobs are created, the sector is said to be responsible for environmental impacts that are increasingly being perceived as topical. As a complex and comprehensive environmental evaluation is necessary to understand and manage the environmental impact of the agri-food chain, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology has been applied to the rice production system: from the paddy field to the supermarket. The LCA has pointed out the magnitude of impact per kg of delivered white milled rice: a CO_2eq emission of 2.9 kg, a primary energy consumption of 17.8 MJ and the use of 4.9 m³ of water for irrigation purposes. Improvement scenarios have been analysed considering alternative rice farming and food processing methods, such as organic and upland farming, as well as parboiling. The research has shown that organic and upland farming have the potential to decrease the impact per unit of cultivated area. However, due to the lower grain yields, the environmental benefits per kg of the final products are greatly reduced in the case of upland rice production and almost cancelled for organic rice. LCA has proved to be an effective tool for understanding the eco-profile of Italian rice and should be used for transparent and credible communication between suppliers and their customers.     

信息技术与高职英语教学整合应用探析

把信息技术融入高职英语教学已经成为高职院校英语教学的普遍现象。从高职英语教学现状分析入手,结合学习的联结理论和建构主义理论,论述了信息技术是高职英语教学改革的必然性。详细分析了信息技术在高职英语教学中具有的显著特点和优势,以及信息技术与高职英语教学的整合模式,即情景教学模式、学生主体模式和交互学习模式。在此基础上分别从教师、学生两个角度深入探讨了在英语教学中应用信息技术应该注意的一些问题。通过这些深入的探讨应该看到随着更先进的信息技术引入教育领域,高职英语课堂将更具有吸引力,教师的教学空间将更加开放和富有创意,学生的自主学习将更加宽广和富有弹性。