The potential of rhizosphere microbes isolated from a constructed wetland to biomethylate selenium

The potential of rhizosphere microbes isolated from common reed [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud] plants grown in a subsurface-flow constructed wetland to biomethylate selenate or selenite was studied in liquid cultures under controlled conditions. Total mean percentages of volatilized Se from half-strength Hoagland culture solutions (low C content) supplemented with selenate or selenite and inoculated with cultured rhizosphere microbes after 15 d of incubation were 7.9 and 49.1%, respectively. There was a relative best fit (r = 0.87) between total number of rhizosphere and cultured microbes and the percentage of volatilized Se in Hoagland solution after 15 d of incubation. However, when the same microbes were cultured in tryptic soybean broth (TSB) medium (high C content), the percentages of volatilized Se from selenate and selenite were 1.3 and 1.9%, respectively. The volatilization percentages of Se from selenate or selenite in culture solutions inoculated with rhizosphere suspension instead of cultured rhizosphere microbes were very low (1.2-3.0%) in both cultivation media. In all experiments, selenite was volatilized significantly (p < 0.05) in higher amounts by cultured rhizosphere microbes after 15 d of incubation compared with selenate. Dissolved biomethylated dimethylselenide (DMSe) in water samples taken from the subsurface-flow bed was determined by purging with helium. The DMSe in water samples was indirectly detected up to 2.4 microg Se L(-1), which indicates that part of the produced DMSe was dissolved in the matrix before being released into the atmosphere. Our results show that rhizosphere microbes isolated from common reed plants have a high potential of Se biomethylation and volatilization from selenate and selenite.     

Removal of selenate in simulated agricultural drainage water by a rice straw bioreactor channel system

Removal of selenium (Se) from agricultural drainage water is important in protecting wetland wildlife. Three flow-through bioreactor channel systems (BCSs), each with three channels filled with rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw, were set in the laboratory to determine removal of selenate [Se(VI)] (1020 microg L(-1)) from drainage water with a salinity of 10.4 dS m(-1), a pH of 8.1, and a nitrate (NO3-) range of 0 to 100 mg L(-1). Results showed that the rice straw effectively reduced Se(VI) during 122 to 165 d of the experiments. Calculation of Se mass in the three BCSs showed that 89.5 to 91.9% of the input Se(VI) was reduced to red elemental Se [Se(0)], where 96.6 to 98.2% was trapped in the BCSs. Losses of each gram of rice straw were almost equal to the removal of 1.66 mg of Se from the drainage water as a form of red Se(0), indicating that rice straw is a very effective organic source for removing Se(VI) from drainage water.     

Selenium removal and mass balance in a constructed flow-through wetland system

A field study on the removal of Se from agricultural subsurface drainage was conducted from May 1997 to February 2001 in the Tulare Lake Drainage District (TLDD) of San Joaquin Valley, California. A flow-through wetland system was constructed consisting of ten 15- x 76-m unlined cells that were continuously flooded and planted with either a monotype or combination of plants, including sturdy bulrush [Schoenoplectus robustus (Pursh) M.T. Strong], baltic rush (Juncus balticus Willd.), smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora Loisel.), rabbitsfoot grass [Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf.], salt-grass lDistichlis spicata (L.) Greene], cattail (Typha latifolia L.), tule [Schoenoplectus acutus (Muhl. ex Bigelow) A. L?ve & D. L?ve], and widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima L.). One cell had no vegetation planted. The objectives of this research were to evaluate Se removal efficiency of each wetland cell and to carry out a mass balance on Se. The inflow drainage water to the cells had average annual Se concentrations of 19 to 22 microg L(-1) dominated by selenate [Se(VI), 95%]. Average weekly water residence time varied from about 3 to 15 d for Cells 1 through 7 (target 7 d), 19 to 33 d for Cells 8 and 9 (target 21 d), and 13 to 18 d for Cell 10 (target 14 d). Average weekly Se concentration ratios of outflow to inflow ranged from 0.45 to 0.79 and mass ratio (concentration x water volume) from 0.24 to 0.52 for year 2000, that is, 21 to 55% reduction in Se concentration and 48 to 76% Se removal in mass by the wetland, respectively. The nonvegetated cell showed the least Se removal both in concentration and in mass. The global mass balance showed that on the average about 59% of the total inflow Se was retained within the cells and Se outputs were outflow (35%), seepage (4%), and volatilization (2%). Independent measurements of the Se retained in the cells totaled 53% of the total Se inflow: 33% in the surface (0-20 cm) sediment, 18% in the organic detrital layer above the sediment, 2% in the fallen litter, < 1% in the standing plants, and < 1% in the surface water. Thus, about 6% of the total Se inflow was unaccounted for in the internal compartments.     

Characterization of selenate removal from drainage water using rice straw

Removal of selenium (Se) from agricultural drainage water is very important for protecting wildlife in wetland systems. We conducted a series of experiments on selenite [Se(IV)] adsorption and selenate [Se(VI)] reduction to determine Se removal from drainage water amended with 1000 microg/L of Se(VI) or Se(IV) and 5 g of rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw. Under sterile conditions, the added Se(IV) was not adsorbed to the rice straw within 2 d of the experiment and the added Se(VI) was not reduced within 14 d. In contrast, added Se(VI) in a nonsterile rice-straw solution was reduced rapidly, from 930 microg/L at Day 3 to 20 microg/L at Day 5, with an increase in unprecipitated elemental Se [Se(0)] and total Se(0). In the last several days of the experiments, unprecipitated Se(0) was the major Se form in the rice-straw solution, with a small amount of organic Se(-II). This study showed that Se removal from drainage water in the presence of rice straw involves a two-step process. The first is the microbial reduction of Se(VI) to Se(IV) and then to colloidal Se(0). The second is flocculation and precipitation of colloidal Se(0) to the bottom of the experimental flasks and the surface of rice straw.     

Fate of colloidal-particulate elemental selenium in aquatic systems

Bacterial reduction of selenate [Se(VI)] to elemental Se [Se(0)] is considered an effective bioremediation technique to remove selenium (Se) from agricultural drainage water. However, the fate of the newly formed Se(0) in aquatic systems is not known when it flows out of the treatment system. A set of laboratory experiments was conducted to determine the fate of the colloidal-particulate Se(0) in a water column and in a water-sediment system. Results showed that the newly formed colloidal-particulate Se(0) followed two removal pathways in aquatic systems: (i) flocculation-sedimentation to the bottom of the water and (ii) oxidation to selenite [Se(IV)] and Se(VI). During 58 d of the experiments, 51% of the added Se(0) was precipitated to the bottom of the water and 47% was oxidized to Se(IV) in the water column. In the water-sediment system, Se(IV) in the water accounted for 21 to 25% of the added Se(0). Adsorption of Se(IV) to the bottom sediment resulted in a relatively low amount of Se(IV) in the water. This study indicates that the newly formed Se(0) may be an available form of Se for uptake by organisms if it flows to aquatic systems from a treatment site. Therefore, an effective bioremediation system for removing Se from drainage water must reduce Se(VI) to Se(0) and remove Se(0) directly from the drainage water.     

Bacterial diversity in selenium reduction of agricultural drainage water amended with rice straw

Bacterial reduction of the Se oxyanions selenate [Se(VI)] and selenite [Se(IV)] to elemental selenium [Se0] is an important biological process in removing Se from drainage water. This study was conducted to characterize the molecular diversity of bacterial populations involved in Se reduction of drainage water amended with rice (Oryza sativa L.) straw and also to monitor the bacterial community shifts during the course of the study. Selenate was removed in the drainage water by the bacteria 5 to 6 d after addition of rice straw. Six Se(VI)- and 32 Se(IV)-reducing bacteria were isolated from rice straw containing sterilized drainage water. Three Se(VI)- and two Se(IV)-reducing bacteria were also isolated from the drainage water. Identification of Se(VI)- and Se(IV)-reducing bacteria by 16S rDNA sequence analysis showed a broad phylogenetic diversity in Se-reducing assemblages. Three major phyla (Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes) of bacterial domain with numerous classes, orders, and families constituted the Se-reducing bacterial community. We documented changes in the composition of bacterial assemblages in the drainage water amended with rice straw using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of 16S rDNA. The Shannon-Weaver index (H') revealed higher bacterial diversity at Day 6 in the sterilized and Day 4 in the non-sterilized drainage water amended with rice straw. The results of this study suggest that rice straw, a good source of carbon and energy, harbors a wide range of bacteria useful in Se reduction and may be used in removing Se from drainage water.     

Selenium stable isotope ratios in California agricultural drainage water management systems

Selenium stable isotope ratios are known to shift in predictable ways during various microbial, chemical, and biological processes, and can be used to better understand Se cycling in contaminated environments. In this study we used Se stable isotopes to discern the mechanisms controlling the transformation of oxidized, aqueous forms of Se to reduced, insoluble forms in sediments of Se-affected environments. We measured 80Se/76Se in surface waters, shallow ground waters, evaporites, digested plants and sediments, and sequential extracts from several sites where agricultural drainage water is processed in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Selenium isotope analyses of samples obtained from the Tulare Lake Drainage District flow-through wetland reveal small isotopic contrasts (mean difference 0.7%) between surface water and reduced Se species in the underlying sediments. Selenium in aquatic macrophytes was very similar isotopically to the NaOH and Na2SO3 sediment extracts designed to recover soluble organic Se and Se(0), respectively. For the integrated on-farm drainage management sites, evaporite salts were slightly (approximately 0.6%) enriched in the heavier isotope relative to the inferred parent waters, whereas surface soils were slightly (approximately 1.4%) depleted. Bacterial or chemical reduction of Se(VI) or Se(IV) may be occurring at these sites, but the small isotopic contrasts suggest that other, less isotopically fractionating mechanisms are responsible for accumulation of reduced forms in the sediments. These findings provide evidence that Se assimilation by plants and algae followed by deposition and mineralization is the dominant transformation pathway responsible for accumulation of reduced forms of Se in the wetland sediments.     

Nutrient and sediment removal by a restored wetland receiving agricultural runoff

Few studies have measured removal of pollutants by restored wetlands that receive highly variable inflows. We used automated flow-proportional sampling to monitor the removal of nutrients and suspended solids by a 1.3-ha restored wetland receiving unregulated inflows from a 14-ha agricultural watershed in Maryland, USA. Water entered the wetland mainly in brief pulses of runoff, which sometimes exceeded the 2500-m3 water holding capacity of the wetland. Half of the total water inflow occurred in only 24 days scattered throughout the two-year study. Measured annual water gains were within 5% of balancing water losses. Annual removal of nutrients differed greatly between the two years of the study. The most removal occurred in the first year, which included a three-month period of decreasing water level in the wetland. In that year, the wetland removed 59% of the total P, 38% of the total N, and 41% of the total organic C it received. However, in the second year, which lacked a drying period, there was no significant (p > 0.05) net removal of total N or P, although 30% of the total organic C input was removed. For the entire two-year period, the wetland removed 25% of the ammonium, 52% of the nitrate, and 34% of the organic C it received, but there was no significant net removal of total suspended solids (TSS) or other forms of N and P. Although the variability of inflow may have decreased the capacity of the wetland to remove materials, the wetland still reduced nonpoint-source pollution.     

Effects of plants on the removal of hexavalent chromium in wetland sediments

The effect of two wetland plants, Typha latifolia L. (cattail) and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud (common reed), on the fate of Cr(VI) in wetland sediments was investigated using greenhouse bench-scale microcosm experiments. The removal of Cr(VI) was monitored based on the vertical profiles of aqueous Cr(VI) in the sediments. The Cr(VI) removal rates were estimated taking into account plant transpiration, which was found to significantly concentrate dissolved species in the sediments. After correcting for evapotranspiration, the actual Cr(VI) removal rates were significantly higher than would be inferred from uncorrected profiles. On average, the Cr(VI) removal rates were 0.005 to 0.017 mg L(-1) d(-1), 0.0003 to 0.08 mg L(-1) d(-1), and 0.004 to 0.13 mg L(-1) d(-1) for the control, T. latifolia, and P. australis microcosms, respectively. The fate of the removed Cr(VI) was examined by determining the quantity and chemical speciation of the Cr in the sediment and plant materials. Chromium(III) was the dominant form of Cr in both the sediment and plants, and precipitation of Cr(III) in the sediment was the major pathway responsible for the disappearance of aqueous Cr(VI) from the pore water. Incubation results showed that abiotic reduction was the primary mechanism underlying Cr(VI) removal in the microcosm sediments. Organic compounds produced by plants, including root exudates and mineralization products of dead roots, are thought to be the factor that is either directly or indirectly responsible for the gap between Cr(VI) removal efficiencies in the sediments of the vegetated and unvegetated microcosms.     

Removal of selenate from water by zerovalent iron

Zerovalent iron (ZVI) has been widely used in the removal of environmental contaminants from water. In this study, ZVI was used to remove selenate [Se(VI)] at a level of 1000 microg L(-1) in the presence of varying concentrations of Cl-, SO(2-)4, NO(-)3, HCO(-)3, and PO(3-)4. Results showed that Se(VI) was rapidly removed during the corrosion of ZVI to iron oxyhydroxides (Fe(OH)). During the 16 h of the experiments, 100 and 56% of the added Se(VI) was removed in 10 mM Cl- and SO(2-)4 solutions under a closed contained system, respectively. Under an open condition, 100 and 93% of the added Se(VI) were removed in the Cl- and SO(2-)4 solutions, respectively. Analysis of Se species in ZVI-Fe(OH) revealed that selenite [Se(IV)] and nonextractable Se increased during the first 2 to 4 h of reaction, with a decrease of Se(VI) in the Cl- experiment and no detection of Se(VI) in the SO(2-)4 experiment. Two mechanisms can be attributed to the rapid removal of Se(VI) from the solutions. One is the reduction of Se(VI) to Se(IV), followed by rapid adsorption of Se(IV) to Fe(OH). The other is the adsorption of Se(VI) directly to Fe(OH), followed by its reduction to Se(IV). The results also show that there was little effect on Se(VI) removal in the presence of Cl- (5, 50, and 100 mM), NO(-)3 (1, 5, and 10 mM), SO(2-)4 (5 mM), HCO(-)3 (1 and 5 mM), or PO(3-)4 (1 mM) and only a slight effect in the presence of SO(2-)4 (50 and 100 mM), HCO(-)3 (10 mM), and PO(3-)4 (5 mM) during a 2-d experiment, whereas 10 mM PO(3-)4 significantly inhibited Se(VI) removal. This work suggests that ZVI may be an effective agent to remove Se from Se-contaminated agricultural drainage water.     

A method to quantitatively trap volatilized organoselenides for stable selenium isotope analysis

If volatile organoselenides are to be analyzed for their stable Se isotope composition to elucidate sources and formation processes, organoselenides need to be trapped quantitatively to avoid artificial Se isotope fractionation. We developed an efficient trap of organoselenides to be used in microcosms designed to determine the Se isotope fractionation by microbial transformation of inorganic Se to volatile organoselenides. The recoveries of volatilized dimethyldiselenide (DMDSe) from aqueous standard solutions by activated charcoal and alkaline peroxide solution with subsequent freeze-drying and purification via a cation exchange resin were tested. Microcosm experiments with the Se-methylating fungus in a growth medium were conducted, and tightness of the microcosm was assessed by comparing mass balances of total Se of the fungus, medium, and trapped organoselenides with the supplied Se mass. At the end of the experiment, we calculated δSe values of the whole microcosm and compared them with the δSe value of supplied Se(IV) and Se(VI). Our results demonstrated that activated charcoal cannot be used for quantitative trapping of organoselenides because generally <64% of the outgassed DMDSe were recovered. The mean recovery of Se volatilized from an aqueous DMDSe standard trapped in alkaline peroxide, in contrast, was 96 ± 11% (SD) after 2 h ( = 4). The mass balances of total Se in microcosm experiments with alkaline peroxide traps run for 11 to 15 d were 96 ± 15 and 102 ± 2.4% for Se(IV) and Se(VI) ( = 3), respectively. The mass-weighted mean δSe values for the Se(IV) and Se(VI) batch experiments were -0.31 ± 0.05‰ ( = 3) and -0.76 ± 0.07‰ ( = 3), compared with -0.20 ± 0.10‰ and -0.69 ± 0.10‰ in the supplied Se oxyanions, respectively. We conclude that the alkaline peroxide trap can reliably be used to determine the Se isotope composition of organoselenides.     

Selenium distribution and fluxes in intertidal wetlands, San Francisco Bay, California

Selenium (Se) concentrations exceeding ecological guidelines for sediments and suspended particulate matter (SPM) have been observed in the northern reach of the San Francisco Bay estuary. Longterm availability of elevated Se in wetland sediments depends in part on the fluxes controlling Se distribution. The relative contribution of sedimentary vs. post-depositional Se fluxes in two San Francisco Bay intertidal wetlands was estimated. Selenium concentrations on surface wetland sediments were compared with levels on SPM, and with previously established background levels in San Francisco Bay sediments. Sediment Se fluxes to the wetlands were measured directly using sediment traps. Although dissolved Se concentrations are higher than particulate Se concentrations in San Francisco Bay water, sediment input into the system provides the major flux of Se. Strong correlation between Se and C on SPM (r2 = 0.81) indicates the importance of organic particulate deposition. Dependence on sediment texture was qualitatively established by measuring Se on particle-size separates. Normalization to Al showed that 65% of Se spatial variability is related to sediment texture. Selenium is further enriched in the marsh via post-depositional inputs, probably due to in situ adsorption from overlying water and chemical reduction. According to sediment flux measurements, enrichment in the marsh is equivalent to 20 to 25% of the particulate Se flux, thereby defining the marsh as a Se sink. These findings highlight the need for more intensive monitoring of SPM as the major source of Se to intertidal wetlands.     

Bioconversion of selenate in methanogenic anaerobic granular sludge

The capacity of anaerobic granular sludge to remove selenate from contaminated wastewater was investigated. The potential of different types of granular sludge to remove selenate from the liquid phase was compared to that of suspended sludge and contaminated soil and sediment samples. The selenate removal rates ranged from 400 to 1500 microg g VSS(-1) h(-1), depending on the source of biomass, electron donor, and the initial selenate concentration. The granular structure protects the microorganisms when exposed to high selenate concentrations (0.1 to 1 mM). Anaerobic granular sludge "Eerbeek," originating from a UASB reactor treating paper mill wastewater, removed about 90, 50, and 36% of 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mM of Se, respectively, from the liquid phase when incubated with 20 mM lactate at 30 degrees C and pH 7.5. Selenite, elemental Se (Se(o)), and metal selenide precipitates were the conversion products. Enrichments from the anaerobic granular sludge "Eerbeek" were able to convert 90% of the 10-mM selenate to Se(o) at a rate of 1505 microg Se(VI) g cells(-1) h(-1), a specific growth rate of 0.0125 g cells h(-1), and a yield of 0.083 g cells mg Se(-1). Both microbial metabolic processes (e.g dissimilatory reduction) as well as microbially mediated physicochemical mechanisms (adsorption and precipitation) contribute to the removal of selenate from the Se-containing medium.     

Herbicide and nutrient transport from an irrigation district into the South Saskatchewan River

Pesticides and nutrients can be transported from treated agricultural land in irrigation runoff and thus can affect the quality of receiving waters. A 3-yr study was carried out to assess possible detrimental effects on the downstream water quality of the South Saskatchewan River due to herbicide and plant nutrient inputs via drainage water from an irrigation district. Automated water samplers and flow monitors were used to intensively sample the drainage water and to monitor daily flows in two major drainage ditches, which drained approximately 40% of the flood-irrigated land within the irrigation district. Over three years, there were no detectable inputs of ethalfluralin into the river and those of trifluralin were less than 0.002% of the amount applied to flood-irrigated fields. Inputs of MCPA, bromoxynil, dicamba and mecoprop were 0.06% or less of the amounts applied, whereas that for clopyralid was 0.31%. The relatively higher input (1.4%) of 2,4-D to the river was probably due its presence in the irrigation water. Corresponding inputs of P (as total P) and N (as nitrate plus ammonia) were 2.2 and 1.9% of applied fertilizer, respectively. Due to dilution of the drainage water in the river, maximum daily herbicide (with the exception of 2,4-D) and nutrient loadings to the river would not have resulted in significant concentration increases in the river water. There was no consistent remedial effect on herbicides entering the river due to passage of the drainage water through a natural wetland. In contrast, a considerable portion of the nutrients entering the river originated from the wetland.     

Irrigation of broccoli and canola with boron- and selenium-laden effluent

Selenium (Se), boron (B), and salinity contamination of agricultural drainage water is potentially hazardous for water reuse strategies in central California. To demonstrate the feasibility of using plants to extract Se from drainage water, Se accumulation was determined in canola (Brassica napus L.) and broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) irrigated with drainage effluent in the San Joaquin Valley, California. In the 2-yr field study, both crops were irrigated with a typical drainage water containing Se (150 microg L(-1)), B (5 mg L(-1)), and a sulfate dominated salinity (EC of 7 dS m(-1)). Total dry matter yields were at least 11 Mg ha(-1) for both canola and broccoli, and plant tissue Se concentrations did not exceed 7 mg kg(-1) DM for either crop. Based on the amount of soluble Se applied to crops with drainage water and the estimated amount of soluble Se remaining in soil to a depth of 90 cm at harvest, both canola and broccoli accumulated at least 40% of the estimated soluble Se lost from the soil for both years. Applied Se not accounted for in plant tissue or as soluble Se in the soil was presumably lost by biological volatilization. This study suggests that irrigating two high value crops such as canola and broccoli with Se-laden effluent helps manage Se-laden effluent requiring treatment, and also produces economically viable Se-enriched crops. Future research should focus on managing residual salt and B in the soil for sustaining long time water reuse strategies.     

Biological alkylation and colloid formation of selenium in methanogenic UASB reactors

Bioalkylation and colloid formation of selenium during selenate removal in upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) bioreactors was investigated. The mesophilic (30 degrees C) UASB reactor (pH = 7.0) was operated for 175 d with lactate as electron donor at an organic loading rate of 2 g COD L(-1) d(-1) and a selenium loading rate of 3.16 mg Se L(-1) d(-1). Combining sequential filtration with ion chromatographic analysis for selenium oxyanions and solid phase micro extraction gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) for alkylated selenium compounds allowed to entirely close the selenium mass balance in the liquid phase for most of the UASB operational runtime. Although selenate was removed to more than 98.6% from the liquid phase, a less efficient removal of dissolved selenium was observed due to the presence of dissolved alkylated selenium species (dimethylselenide and dimethyldiselenide) and colloidal selenium particles in the effluent. The alkylated and the colloidal fractions contributed up to 15 and 31%, respectively, to the dissolved selenium concentration. The size fractions of the colloidal dispersion were: 4 to 0.45 mum: up to 21%, 0.45 to 0.2 mum: up to 11%, and particles smaller than 0.2 mum: up to 8%. Particles of 4 to 0.45 mum were formed in the external settler, but did not settle. SEM-EDX analysis showed that microorganisms form these selenium containing colloidal particles extracellularly on their surface. Lowering the temperature by 10 degrees C for 6 h resulted in drastically reduced selenate removal efficiencies (after a delay of 1.5 d), accompanied by the temporary formation of an unknown, soluble, organic selenium species. This study shows that a careful process control is a prerequisite for selenium treatment in UASB bioreactors, as disturbances in the operational conditions induce elevated selenium effluent concentrations by alkylation and colloid formation.     

Ammonia emissions from surface flow and subsurface flow constructed wetlands treating dairy wastewater

Agricultural wastewater treatment is important for maintaining water quality, and constructed wetlands (CW) can be an effective treatment option. However, some of the N that is removed during treatment can be volatilized to the atmosphere as ammonia (NH(3)). This removal pathway is not preferred because it negatively impacts air quality. The objective of this study was to assess NH(3) volatilization from surface flow (SF) and subsurface flow (SSF) CWs. Six CWs (3 SF and 3 SSF; 6.6 m(2) each) were loaded with dairy wastewater ( approximately 300 mg L(-1) total ammoniacal nitrogen, TAN = NH(3)-N + NH(4)(+)-N) in Nova Scotia, Canada. From June through September 2006, volatilization of NH(3) during 12 or 24 h periods was measured using steady-state chambers. No differences (p > 0.1) between daytime and nighttime fluxes were observed, presumably due in part to the constant airflow inside the chambers. Changes in emission rates and variability within and between wetland types coincided with changes in the vegetative canopy (Typha latifolia L.) and temperature. In SSF wetlands, the headspace depth also appeared to affect emissions. Overall, NH(3) emissions from SF wetlands were significantly higher than from SSF wetlands. The maximum flux densities were 974 and 289 mg NH(3)-N m(-2) d(-1) for SF and SSF wetlands, respectively. Both wetland types had similar TAN mass removal. On average, volatilization contributed 9 to 44% of TAN removal in SF and 1 to 18% in SSF wetlands. Results suggest volatilization plays a larger role in N removal from SF wetlands.     

Removal of trichloroethylene from soil using the hydration of calcium oxide

Quicklime addition to soil at a remediation site was observed to sufficiently reduce TCE levels, but the cause of the removal could not be confirmed with the field data collected. Potential mechanisms for CaO treatment of trichloroethylene (TCE) in soil include degradation and volatilization. Since earlier studies found TCE degradation to occur during the hydration of CaO under conditions where volatilization was limited, research was conducted on mechanisms of TCE removal from soil by CaO application under conditions where volatilization was allowed to occur. TCE volatilization in soil treated with 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20% CaO doses was measured in experiments where the degree of volatilization could be tracked. The total TCE removal from soil spiked with TCE at CaO doses from 5% to 20% ranged from 97% to 99% of the initial TCE mass. Volatilization accounted for 64.4-92.5% of the TCE removal, with unrecovered TCE and TCE degradation accounting for the remaining fraction. The greater heat encountered with higher CaO doses helped minimize obstacles to TCE volatilization, such as high soil organic and clay content. Treatment with a 20% CaO dose, however, led to the formation of byproducts such as dichloroacetylene. TCE degradation to dichloroacetylene at the 20% CaO dose ranged from 2.7% to 6.4% of the initial TCE. Volatilization was concluded to be the dominant process for TCE removal from soil during CaO treatment.     

人工湿地污水处理系统脱氮机理研究进展

本文介绍了近年来人工湿地污水处理系统脱氮机理的研究情况,阐述了人工湿地脱氮的三种途径：植物和其它生物的吸收作用、微生物的生物转化作用及氨气的挥发作用,其中微生物的生物转化作用是人工湿地主要的脱氮方式.同时对影响人工湿地脱氮效率的主要因素：温度、pH值、氧化还原电位、溶解氧、微生物可利用有机碳与硝态氮、停留时间等都作了比较详细的介绍,为进一步开展人工湿地脱氮机理的研究和优化人工湿地污水处理系统设计提供参考.     

Phosphorus removal in a wetland constructed on former arable land

Phosphorus in surface runoff water may cause eutrophication of recipient water. This study clarifies the mechanisms of P removal in the wetland of Hovi, Finland, constructed on arable land in 1998. Before the construction, the surface soil (removed in the construction) and subsoil (the current wetland bottom) were analyzed for Al and Fe oxides (Al(ox) and Fe(ox)) reactive in P sorption, and for the distribution of P between various pools as well as for P exchange properties. Retention of P from runoff water within the wetland was studied from 1999 to 2001 in situ and factors affecting the P removal (O2 availability and P concentration in water) were investigated in a laboratory microcosm. The processes taking place in the wetland diminished by 68% the total P load and by 49% the dissolved reactive P load. Desorption-sorption tests indicated that without removal of the surface soil, there would have been a risk of the wetland being a source of P, since the equilibrium P concentration of the soil removed was high compared with the mean P concentration of the inflowing water. The subsoil contained less P and high amounts of reactive oxides, which could bind P. Evidently, the P sorption by Al(ox) played an important role in a first phase removal of P, since the wetland retained P efficiently even under anoxic conditions, where Fe tends to be reduced. Fine-textured, mineral soil on the bottom of the wetland (subsoil of the former arable land) seemed to be very efficient in retaining P from agricultural runoff.