Changes in Atmospheric Deposition Rates of Heavy Metals in Sweden A Summary of Nationwide Swedish Surveys in 1968/70 – 1995

The Swedish nationwide surveys of atmospheric heavy metal deposition in 1968/70 – 1995 using bryophytes (carpet-forming mosses) as monitors are reviewed. Considered are cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), vanadium (V), and zinc (Zn). The close agreement between data obtained with deposition (precipitation) collectors and moss carpet analysis is documented briefly, as well as measures of quality control and assessment of reproducibility. Since 1968/70, the deposition rate of the heavy metals considered has declined gradually and evenly, particularly in the southern parts of the country, reflecting an improvement of general air quality due to decreasing dust emission from mainly industry and fossil fuel combustion in northern and western Europe. By far the greatest absolute decrease in deposition rate was measured in Fe, which is a main constituent of most man-generated dust particles. However, the greatest per cent decreases in deposition rates were measured for Pb. The Pb concentration of moss carpets in Sweden as a whole in 1995 was only 11% of the value in 1968/70. Corresponding figures for Fe was 20%, Cd 24%, Ni 28%, Hg 31%, V 43%, Zn 51%, and Cu 52%. For Zn the current deposition rate seems to approach a natural baseline, whereas deposition of the other seven elements are still decreasing according to the surveys of 1990 and 1995.     

Australia’s Tyranny of Distance in Oil Spill Response

In view of the quantity of oil spilled, smaller spills generally receive less attention than headline grabbing incidents such as the “Amoco Cadiz”, “Exxon Valdez”, “Braer” and “Sea Empress”. The latter incidents involve the loss of significant quantities of oil, the establishment of relatively complex spill response management structures and the involvement of significant numbers of personnel and equipment. As such, large spills from tankers have the potential to create problem areas, for example in establishing and maintaining effective communications, logistics and resource management systems.In general terms spill response personnel are well aware that large spills come complete with significant operational and administrative problems, however what may not be so well recognised is that smaller spills also have the potential to present response personnel with their own unique problems.One of the major problems to be overcome when responding to spills in Australia is the “tyranny of distance”. In quite a few responses, Australian oil spill response managers have had to move personnel and equipment thousands of kilometres to provide an effective outcome. This paper outlines a range of problems that have been encountered by Australian personnel over the years. These include health and safety, communications, logistics and equipment issues.For the purpose of this paper a “smaller” spill has been defined as one involving a discharge of less than 1000 tonnes of oil.     

How vital is the "lack of funding" in effective environmental management in Turkey?

The conflict experienced in Turkey between adequate legal and legislative arrangements with weak capabilities of policy implementation and enforcement is a typical scenario experienced in developing countries. The difficulties faced in environmental management is increased by funding issues. Although environmental management is directly influenced by problems associated with the distribution of public funds, lack of funding is not the sole reason responsible for the mismanagement of resources. The paper seeks to answer whether the lack of funding allocated to ameliorate environmental degradation and pollution is the main reason for an environmental crisis situation in Turkey. Turkey needs to ensure implementation of the basic obligations stated in its environmental policy with respect to national and international issues. Specific obstacles Turkey needs to overcome for more effective environmental management will be examined within this context.     

Effectiveness of “Nochar” Solidifier Polymer in Removing Oil from Open Water in Coastal Wetlands

The use of solidifier in oil spill cleanup has been minimal due to lack of practical application method and in situ field testing and evaluation under various coastal and environmental conditions. Solidifiers are dry granular, hydrophobic polymers that react with oil and form a cohesive mass that floats on water. Unlike sorbents, the oil is retained in the solid mass allowing for easy removal. A field test was conducted in coastal Louisiana in which replicated open water enclosures were oiled with South Louisiana Crude. Granular solidifier was spread over oil and the solidified oil was then removed from the plots. Over 70% of the applied oil was recovered. Results demonstrated that solidifier may, under certain conditions, be an option for removing oil from wetlands.     

Assessment of the environmental impact of management measures for the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste in São Paulo City

There is increasing concern about landfilling of biodegradable wastes. Therefore, biological treatment processes such as composting and biogasification have been considered as alternative strategies for managing those wastes. In this work, life cycle assessment was employed to compare the environmental impacts of landfilling, composting, and biological treatment of municipal solid waste in S?o Paulo City, Brazil. Energy consumption, recovered resources, and emissions to air and water were quantified and analyzed in terms of their potential contribution to global warming, acidification, and nutrient enrichment impact. The results demonstrated that processes that require high levels of energy consumption, such as wastewater treatment, play an important role in the outcome of environmental impact potentials. It was found that the landfilling of all waste is generally the worst strategy from an environmental point of view. However, significant reductions in the resulting impacts can be accomplished through biogasification and composting of the biodegradable fraction. Regarding composting, the application of a biofilter for gas treatment reduced significantly the gaseous emissions.     

Formation of Reactive Gaseous Mercury in the Arctic: Evidence of Oxidation of Hg° to Gas-Phase Hg-II Compounds after Arctic Sunrise

We have measured total gaseous mercury concentrations(Hg°) at Point Barrow, Alaska since September 1998 in aneffort to determine the geographic extent and reaction mechanismof the so-called mercury depletion events (MDE) previouslyreported in the high Arctic at Alert, Canada. Hg° has beensampled now for nearly 2 years at Barrow. In September, 1999, webegan making the first automated measurements of reactive gaseousmercury (RGM) attempted in the Arctic, along with measurements ofHg accumulation in snowpack to determine the fate of the depleted Hg°. During the fall and early winter, Hg°and RGM exhibit only minor variation, Hg° remaining within10% of global background, near 1.6–1.8 ng m^-3. The MDEperiods are quite different, however; within days of Arcticsunrise in January, Hg° exhibits major variations from themean, rapidly dropping as low as 0.05 ng m^-3 and then cyclingback to typical levels, sometimes exceeding global background. These events continue throughout Arctic spring, then end abruptlyfollowing snowmelt, in early June. Prior to Arctic sunrise, RGMremains near detection (<2 pg m^-3), but after sunriseincreases dramatically (to levels as high as 900 pg/m³) insynchrony with the depletion of Hg°. Both phenomenaexhibit a strong diel cycle, in parallel with UV-B. We concludethat MDE's involve rapid in-air oxidation of Hg° to aspecies of RGM by photochemically-driven reactions, probablyinvolving the same reactive bromine and chlorine compoundsinvolved in ozone destruction. Sharp increases in Hg in thesurface snowpack after sunrise coincident with periods of peakRGM suggest surface accumulation of the RGM by dry deposition.     

Deterioration of Polyamideamine–Epichlorohydrin (PAE) in Aqueous Solutions During Storage: Structural Changes of PAE

Structural changes of polyamideamine–epichlorohydrin (PAE) in solution during storage at 4 °C and pH 4.2–4.5 for up to 8.9 years were studied by ¹H- and ¹³C-NMR analyses, colloidal titration and others. NMR signals due to 3-hydroxy-azetidinium groups of PAE decreased during storage, and correspondingly 2, 3-dihydroxypropyl groups were formed by the ring opening. The content of 3-hydroxy-azetidinium groups in PAE determined by ¹H-NMR were similar to that determined by the colloidal titration, although the former was higher than the latter. About 50% of the 3-hydroxy-azetidinium groups present in the fresh PAE were lost during storage for 8.9 years. Furthermore, ¹³C-NMR analysis revealed that significant depolymerization of polyamideamine chains occurred by hydrolysis of the amide linkages during storage. Rough evaluation of number average degree of polymerization (DPn) of the amideamine repeating unit showed that the DPn decreased from 12 to 2 during storage for 8.9 years.     

PHB/V in Extrusion Coating of Paper and Paperboard—Study of Functional Properties. Part II

Extrusion coating experiments were carried out in the pilot line at Tampere University of Technology (Institute of Paper Converting). Commercially produced 3-hydroxybutyrate/3-hydroxyvalerate copolymer, commercial Finnish paper, and paperboard qualities were utilized as substrates. Functional properties, such as heat-sealing and hot-tack properties, pinhole density, and water vapor transmission rate were determined. PHB/V coatings exhibited approximately four–six times higher water vapor transmission rates (WVTR) than the corresponding LDPE coatings. The incorporation of wax or tall oil rosin into PHB/V improved its water vapor barrier. Curling of PHB/V was reduced by the addition of wax or tall oil rosin into the base polymer. PHB/V provided good heat-sealing characteristics at rather high sealing temperatures. Pinhole density was substantially reduced by using higher molecular weight PHB/V and by incorporating plasticizer into PHB/V.     

Biodegradation of starch-poly(β-hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate) composites in municipal activated sludge

Injection-molded composites were prepared by blending PHBV⁵ with native cornstarch (30% and 50%) and with cornstarch precoated with PEO as a binding agent. These composites were evaluated for their biodegradability in municipal activated sludge by measuring changes in their physical and chemical properties over a period of 35 days. All composites lost weight, ranging from 45 to 78% within 35 days. Interestingly, the extent and rate of weight loss were quite similar in PHBV composites with no starch, with 30% starch, and with 50% starch. Weight loss was slowest in PHBV blends prepared with PEO-coated starch. For all samples, the weight loss was accompanied by a rapid deterioration in tensile strength and percentage elongation. The deterioration of these mechanical properties exhibited a relative rate of PHBV>starch-PHBV>PEO-coated starch-PHBV. Changes in starch/PHBV composition after biodegradation were quantified by FTIR spectroscopy. Increasing the starch content resulted in more extensive starch degradation, while the PHBV content in the blends became less susceptible to hydrolytic enzymes.The mention of firms names or trade products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture over firms or similar products not mentioned. All programs and services of the U.S. Department of Agriculture are offered on a nondiscriminatory basis without regard to race, color, national origin, religion, sex, marital status, or handicap.     

The in situ treatment of PFAS within porewater at the air–water interface of a PFAS source zone

The treatment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) within groundwater is an emerging topic, with various technologies being researched and tested. Currently, PFAS-impacted groundwater is typically treated ex situ using sorptive media such as activated carbon and ion exchange resin. Proven in situ remedial approaches for groundwater have been limited to colloidal activated carbon (CAC) injected into aquifers downgradient of the source zones. However, treatment of groundwater within the source zones has not been shown to be feasible to date. This study evaluated the use of CAC to treat dissolved PFAS at the air–water interface within the PFAS source zone. Studies have shown that PFAS tends to preferentially accumulate at the air–water interface due to the chemical properties of the various PFAS. This accumulation can act as a long-term source for PFAS, thus making downgradient treatment of groundwater a long-term requirement. A solution of CAC was injected at the air–water interface within the source zone at a site with PFAS contamination using direct push technology. A dense injection grid that targeted the interface between the air and groundwater was used to deliver the CAC. Concentrations of PFAS within the porewater and groundwater were collected using a series of nine lysimeters installed within the vadose and saturated water columns. A total of six PFAS were detected in the porewater and groundwater including perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA). Detectable concentrations of PFAS within the pore and groundwater before treatment ranged from values greater than 300 µg/L for PFPeA to less than 3 µg/L for PFNA. Following the injection of the CAC, monitoring of the porewater and groundwater for PFAS was conducted approximately 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18 months postinjection. The results indicated that the PFAS within the porewater and groundwater at and near the air–water interface was effectively attenuated over the 1.5-year monitoring program, with PFAS concentrations being below the method detection limits of approximately 10 ng/L, with the exception of PFPeA, which was detected within the porewater during the 18-month sampling event at concentrations of up to 55 ng/L. PFPeA is a five carbon-chained PFAS that has been shown to have a lower affinity for sorption onto activated carbon compared to the longer carbon-chained PFAS such as PFOA. Examination of aquifer cores in the zone of injection indicated that the total organic carbon concentration of the aquifer increased by five orders of magnitude postinjection, with 97% of the samples collected within the target injection area containing activated carbon, indicating that the CAC was successfully delivered into the source zone.     

University students’ awareness of e-waste and its disposal practices in Pakistan: a construction of the conceptual framework

Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management - Pakistan is among the few countries generating and receiving enormous e-waste, which posits a threat to its&nbsp;future generations. A...     

Study of Trace and Heavy Metals in Rural and Urban Aerosols of Uludağ and Bursa (Turkey)

The concentrations of heavy, trace elements and major ions measuredin the Uluda and Bursa aerosols were investigated to assess size distributions, spatial and temporal variability, sources and source regions affecting the composition of aerosols in Uluda and Bursa. A total of 81 samples were collected in two sites, one in Bursa city and another in the Uluda Mountain during two sampling campaigns. Daily samples were collected using a high volume sampler on Whatman 41 cellulose filters in Uluda, while three days interval samples were collected in Bursa using an automatic dichotomous sampler on PTFE Teflon filters. Samples were analysed for 15 trace and heavy metals (Al, Fe, Ba, Na, Mg, K, Mn, Ca, Cu), (V, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn), and 4 major ions (SO₄ ^2-, NO₃ ^-, Cl^-), (NH₄ ⁺) using ICP-AES, GFAAS, HPLC and UV/VIS Spectrophotometer,respectively. In general, concentrations of the metals measured inUluda aerosols were lower than those in Bursa. The concentrations of crustal elements were higher in summer than winter, while anthropogenic elements had higher concentrations in winter than summer. Most of the mass of crustal elements was concentrated in the coarse mode while the mass of the heavy metals was concentrated in the fine mode. Factor analysis revealed four factors with sources including crustal, industrial and combustion. Back trajectory calculations were used to determine long range contributions. These calculations showed that contributions were mostly from European countries, former Soviet Union countries, Black Sea and North Africa.     

Use of recycling stations in Borlänge, Sweden--volume weights and attitudes

This paper presents a study of recycling stations in the municipality of Borl?nge, Sweden. The main objectives were to measure volume weights of recyclables, to facilitate future planning of collection intervals and bin/container volume, and to investigate the general attitudes among the public towards waste management in general and recycling stations in particular. Volume weights measured in bins/containers were: paper/newsprint: 297 kg/m3, glass packaging: 297 kg/m3, metal packaging: 81.7 kg/m3, paper packaging: 27.8 kg/m3, plastic packaging: 28.1 kg/m3. The recycling stations have been in use since 1994. Most visitors (90%) arrived by car but said the visit to the recycling station was not the main purpose of the trip. The results from the interviews indicated that the people who use the recycling stations have found ways to incorporate waste sorting into their everyday lives, with the help of information, design of the collection system and environmental concerns.     

The introduction of recycled-aggregate concrete specifications in Japan and the research into the freezing–thawing resistance of recycled-aggregate concrete

Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management - In Japan, recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and recycled-aggregate concrete (RAC) are standardized in the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) A...     

Distribution of Poly(β-propiolactone) Aerobic Degrading Microorganisms in Different Environments

The distribution of degading microorganisms of high molecular weight poly(-propiolactone) (PPL), whose individual structural units are similar to those of poly(-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(€-caprolactone) (PCL), was examined. Despite the fact that PPL is a chemosynthetic polymer, many kinds of PPL-degrading microorganisms were found to be distributed as resident populations widely in natural environments. A total of 77 strains of PPL-degrading microorganisms was isolated. From standard physiological and biochemical tests, at least 41 strains were referred to as Bacillus species. Microbial degradation of fibrous PPL proceeded rapidly in some enrichment cultures but was not as complete as that of PHB. Most of the isolated PPL-degrading microorganisms were determined to be PCL degraders and/or PHB degraders. Therefore, it can be assumed that mostly PPL is recognized by the microorganisms as PHB or another natural substrate of the same type as which PCL is regarded. Microbial degradation of PPL was confirmed by some Bacillus strains from type culture collections. The similarity of microbial degradation between PPL and PCL was found to be very close.     

Waste incineration—An important element of the integrated waste management system in Germany

This paper describes the present situation of waste incineration in Europe and discusses the problems faced in the future when the Directives of the European Community will be implemented on waste management. As an example, the status of thermal waste treatment in Germany is dealt with in detail. A point addressed is that public acceptance of incineration can only be increased if the public is aware of the conditions governing waste avoidance and recycling and if these conditions are actually realized. This means, prior to incineration, recyclable or compostable materials should be separated, and only then can the remaining amounts of wastes be treated before being deposited. The main aim of the treatment process is to reduce the hazard potential posed by waste and to meet the landfill requirements laid down in the German Technical Instructions for Municipal Waste.     

Air–Soil Exchange of NO,NO2 and O3 in Forests

The exchange of NO, NO₂ and O₃ at the soil surface wasmeasured with automatic dynamic chambers in a spruce forest and in abeech forest during periods of several months.NO was emitted from the soil at a rate of0–8 ng N m^-2 s^-1(spruce) and 0–15 ng Nm^-2 s^-1(beech), but there was no simple relationship between the flux andeither soil temperature or soil moisture. NO₂ and O₃ weredeposited at the soil surface. Deposition velocities forNO₂were on average 0.3 mm s^-1 (spruce) and 0.1 mms^-1(beech), and the deposition velocities of O₃ were on average 1.6 mm s^-1 (spruce) and 1.4 mm s^-1 (beech). The depositionvelocity of O₃ is fairly constant whereas the deposition velocityof NO₂ varies greatly, but the reasons remain to be investigated.     

Evaluation of Material Biodegradability in Real Conditions–Development of a Burial Test and an Analysis Methodology Based on Numerical Vision

This work validated a burial protocol for in situ testing and presents a robust, repeatable and time-saving technique to measure degraded areas in the sample, i.e. an image analysis method. 1440 specimens of degraded samples have been compiled in a data base. To this end, twenty samples presenting different levels of biodegradability (i.e. PHBV/HV, PLA, PCL, PCL-Starch, paper, PE, PE-Starch) were buried at 4 different locations and then disinterred at 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24-month intervals. The biodegradation levels of these samples were determined by computing weight and area loss. Weight loss was measured after careful cleaning, whereas area loss was quantified using image analysis. Image analysis gives reliable information on visual pollution while only requiring a rudimentary and thus quicker cleaning of the samples.     

Degradation of Starch–Calcium Carbonate Disposable Packaging in a Solid Waste Composting Facility

The compostability of starch–CaCO₃ disposable packaging was examined in a source-separated municipal solid waste (MSW) composting facility located in East Hampton, NY. Source-separated MSW:starch–CaCO₃ container mixtures of 0 (control), 5, and 20% (by volume) were prepared as feedstock for composting. Compost samples were collected weekly or biweekly during the composting process and examined for fragments of the starch–CaCO₃ containers. Changes in compost quality due to the presence of starch–CaCO₃ containers were assessed by measuring the nutrient and metal content of the three resultant MSW:starch–CaCO₃ composts. Finally, plant growth studies were conducted to examine the composts for possible plant growth inhibition due to the deterioration of the starch–CaCO₃ containers. Results showed that portions of the starch–CaCO₃ containers were not identified in any of the 5 and 20% sieved and characterized compost fractions > 1.3 cm following 1–3 weeks of composting. Mechanical agitation of the waste along with optimum composting conditions were sufficient to initiate the rapid degradation of the starch–CaCO₃ composites. Degradation of starch–CaCO₃ containers did not affect compost nutrient and trace element content. Grass biomass measurements were performed once weekly over 28 days for grass grown in control (0%), 5%, and 20% starch–CaCO₃-containing compost:soil mixtures. Significant differences in grass biomass for these compost:soil mixtures were measured only for the 0 and 20% starch–CaCO₃-containing compost:soil mixtures at 28 days (9.07 vs 11.05 g, respectively; P = 0.046).     

Urban Metabolism of Mercury Turnover,Emissions and Stock in Stockholm 1795–1995

This article accounts for the use of mercury (Hg) in differentactivities in Stockholm during the time period 1795–1995.Turnover of Hg is estimated to 122–440 tons, amounts recycled: 27–50 tons and total emissions of Hg are estimated to 90–390 tons. The stock was approximately 4.4–8.1 tons in 1995. 19th century handicraft occupations and medical treatment emitted alarge part of the Hg, emission sources that hitherto have beenunknown in Sweden. Emissions peaked around 1960, thereafter theemissions plummeted, being the result of decreased use of Hg fordental fillings and in products such as batteries, while recycling efforts had a limited effect on reducing total emissions. Based on this finding, the current focus on collectionof Hg containing products for long term storage in bedrock is questioned. If the aim is to reduce the potential for environmental hazards because of Hg it might be better to focusmore attention on the already emitted amounts since these are nearly 30 times greater than the amount of Hg in stock.