The potential of vehicle and road infrastructure interventions in fatal bicyclist accidents on Swedish roads—What can in-depth studies tell us?

Abstract

Objective: The objective of this article is to describe the characteristics of fatal crashes with bicyclists on Swedish roads in rural and urban areas and to investigate the potential of bicycle helmets and different vehicle and road infrastructure interventions to prevent them. The study has a comprehensive approach to provide road authorities and vehicle manufacturers with recommendations for future priorities.

Methods: The Swedish Transport Administration’s (STA) in-depth database of fatal crashes was used for case-by-case analysis of fatal cycling accidents (2006–2016) on rural (n?=?82) and urban (n?=?102) roads. The database consists of information from the police, medical journals, autopsy reports, accident analyses performed by STA, and witness statements. The potential of helmet use and various vehicle and road infrastructure safety interventions was determined retrospectively for each case by analyzing the chain of events leading to the fatality. The potential of vehicle safety countermeasures was analyzed based on prognoses on their implementation rates in the Swedish vehicle fleet.

Results: The most common accident scenario on rural roads was that the bicyclist was struck while cycling along the side of the road. On urban roads, the majority of accidents occurred in intersections. Most accidents involved a passenger car, but heavy trucks were also common, especially in urban areas. Most accidents occurred in daylight conditions (73%). Almost half (46%) of nonhelmeted bicyclists would have survived with a helmet. It was assessed that nearly 60% of the fatal accidents could be addressed by advanced vehicle safety technologies, especially autonomous emergency braking with the ability to detect bicyclists. With regard to interventions in the road infrastructure, separated paths for bicyclists and bicycle crossings with speed calming measures were found to have the greatest safety potential. Results indicated that 91% of fatally injured bicyclists could potentially be saved with known techniques. However, it will take a long time for such technologies to be widespread.

Conclusions: The majority of fatally injured bicyclists studied could potentially be saved with known techniques. A speedy implementation of important vehicle safety systems is recommended. A fast introduction of effective interventions in the road infrastructure is also necessary, preferably with a plan for prioritization.     

A multinomial logit model of motorcycle crash severity at Australian intersections

Introduction: Motorcyclists are exposed to more fatalities and severe injuries per mile of travel as compared to other vehicle drivers. Moreover, crashes that take place at intersections are more likely to result in serious or fatal injuries as compared to those that occur at non-intersections. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the contributing factors to motorcycle crash severity at intersections. Method: A data set of 7,714 motorcycle crashes at intersections in the State of Victoria, Australia was analyzed over the period of 2006–2018. The multinomial logit model was used for evaluating the motorcycle crashes. The severity of motorcycle crashes was divided into three categories: minor injury, serious injury and fatal injury. The risk factors consisted of four major categories: motorcyclist characteristics, environmental characteristics, intersection characteristics and crash characteristics. Results: The results of the model demonstrated that certain factors increased the probability of fatal injuries. These factors were: motorcyclists aged over 59 years, weekend crashes, midnight/early morning crashes, morning rush hours crashes, multiple vehicles involved in the crash, t-intersections, crashes in towns, crashes in rural areas, stop or give-way intersections, roundabouts, and uncontrolled intersections. By contrast, factors such as female motorcyclists, snowy or stormy or foggy weather, rainy weather, evening rush hours crashes, and unpaved roads reduced the probability of fatal injuries. Practical Applications: The results from our study demonstrated that certain treatment measures for t-intersections may reduce the probability of fatal injuries. An effective way for improving the safety of stop or give-way intersections and uncontrolled intersections could be to convert them to all-way stop controls. Further, it is recommended to educate the older riders that with ageing, there are physiological changes that occur within the body which can increase both crash likelihood and injury severity.     

Motorcycle safety among motorcycle taxi drivers and nonoccupational motorcyclists in developing countries: A case study of Maoming,South China

Objective: An increasing number of motorcycle taxis have been involved in traffic crashes in many developing countries. This study examines the characteristics of both motorcycle taxi drivers and nonoccupational motorcyclists, investigates the risks they pose to road safety, and provides recommendations to minimize their risks.

Methods: Based on the data collected from a questionnaire survey of 867 motorcycle taxi drivers and 2,029 nonoccupational motorcyclists in Maoming, South China, comparisons were made to analyze differences of personal attributes, attitudes toward road safety, and self-reported behavior of the 2 groups.

Results: Results of the chi-square tests show that not only motorcycle taxi drivers but also nonoccupational motorcyclists in Maoming held poor attitudes toward road safety and both groups reported unsafe driving behavior. There is much room for improving local road safety education among all motorcyclists in Maoming. Yet, motorcycle taxi drivers were more likely to pose road safety risks than nonoccupational motorcyclists under some circumstances, such as speeding late at night or early in the morning, not requiring passengers to wear helmets, and running a red light. The results of the binary logistic regression model show that possessing a vehicle license for a motorcycle or not was the common significant predictor for unsafe driving behavior of motorcycle taxi drivers and nonoccupational motorcyclists. Therefore, enforcement against all motorcyclists not showing vehicle licenses for their motorcycles should be stepped up.

Conclusion: Motorcycle safety is largely poor in Maoming. Therefore, efforts to improve motorcycle safety should be strengthened by targeting not only motorcycle taxi drivers but also nonoccupational motorcyclists.     

Knowledge, attitude, and practice of Nigerian commercial motorcyclists in the use of crash helmet and other safety measures

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of some commercial motorcyclists in Nigeria in the use of crash helmet and other cycling safety measures. METHODS: At randomly selected commercial motorcycle parks from two South Western Nigerian locations (Lagos and Ile-Ife), we obtained verbal consent from commercial motorcyclists (randomly selected) and thereafter administered structured questionnaires to consenting motorcyclists. The questionnaire sought to know the respondents' biodata (age, gender, and educational attainment inclusive), cycling background, and experience (trainer, duration of training and cycling, and history of crashes). Furthermore, risk factors and practices like alcoholism, maintenance history of the motorcycle, maximum number of pillion passengers carried, and use of crash helmet were elicited. Respondents' knowledge of available safety measures was also investigated. Data was entered into an IBM compatible computer and analyzed using the SPSS 11.0 statistical software. Statistical significance was inferred at p value<0.05. RESULTS: There were 224 male respondents aged 15-58 years. Their peak age was 25-29 years and mean 35.1+/-8.9 years; 8.4% had no formal education; 10.3% received formal training but the majority were either trained by self (35.5%) or an acquaintance (34.6%). Training lasted相似文献   

Correlation between crash avoidance maneuvers and injury severity sustained by motorcyclists in single-vehicle crashes

Objectives: In order to improve motorcycle safety, this article examines the correlation between crash avoidance maneuvers and injury severity sustained by motorcyclists, under multiple precrash conditions. Method: Ten-year crash data for single-vehicle motorcycle crashes from the General Estimates Systems (GES) were analyzed, using partial proportional odds models (i.e., generalized ordered logit models). Results: The modeling results show that “braking (no lock-up)” is associated with a higher probability of increased severity, whereas “braking (lock-up)” is associated with a higher probability of decreased severity, under all precrash conditions. “Steering” is associated with a higher probability of reduced injury severity when other vehicles are encroaching, whereas it is correlated with high injury severity under other conditions. “Braking and steering” is significantly associated with a higher probability of low severity under “animal encounter and object presence,” whereas it is surprisingly correlated with high injury severity when motorcycles are traveling off the edge of the road. The results also show that a large number of motorcyclists did not perform any crash avoidance maneuvers or conducted crash avoidance maneuvers that are significantly associated with high injury severity. Conclusions: In general, this study suggests that precrash maneuvers are an important factor associated with motorcyclists' injury severity. To improve motorcycle safety, training/educational programs should be considered to improve safety awareness and adjust driving habits of motorcyclists. Antilock brakes and such systems are also promising, because they could effectively prevent brake lock-up and assist motorcyclists in maneuvering during critical conditions. This study also provides valuable information for the design of motorcycle training curriculum.     

Risk factors for motorcycle loss-of-control crashes

Objective: The present article identifies and assesses the effect of critical factors on the risk of motorcycle loss-of-control (LOC) crashes.

Method: Data come from a French project on road crashes, which include all fatal road crashes and a random sample of 1/20th of nonfatal crashes in France in 2011, based on police reports. A case–control study was carried out on a sample of 903 crashes for 444 LOC motorcycle riders (case) and 470 non-LOC and nonresponsible motorcycle riders (control). The sample was weighted due to the randomization of nonfatal crashes. Missing values were imputed using multiple imputation.

Results: Road alignment and surface conditions, human factors, and motorcycle type played important roles in motorcycle LOC crashes. Riding in a curve was associated with a 3-fold greater risk of losing control of motorcycle than riding in a straight line. Poor road adhesion significantly increased the risk of losing control; the risk increased more than 20-fold when deteriorated road adhesion was encountered unexpectedly, due to loose gravel, ice, oil, bumps, road marking, metal plates, etc. For motorcyclists, riding with a positive blood alcohol concentration (over or equal to the legal limit of 0.5 g/L) was very dangerous, often resulting in losing control. The risk of LOC crash varied for different types of motorcycle: Riders of roadsters and sports bikes were more likely to have an LOC crash greater than that of riders of basic or touring motorcycles. In addition, LOC risk increased with speed; a model using the square of the traveling speed showed better fit than one using speed itself.

Conclusion: The LOC crash factors related to riders, vehicles, and road infrastructure identified here were expected but were rarely identified and taken simultaneously into account in previous studies. They could be targeted by countermeasures to improve motorcyclist safety.     

Investigation of speed and trajectory of motorcycle riders at curved road sections of two-lane rural roads under diverse lighting conditions

Introduction: Vehicular accidents at horizontal curves are over-represented compared to accidents that occur at tangent sections. Investigations have been conducted aimed at identifying the major causes that result in higher accident risk, both in terms of severity and rate, at curved road sections. Excessive or abrupt changes in speeding and improper vertical position are cited as major factors of lane departure, whereas other factors (either human or environmental) have also been documented. However, most research involves 4-wheel vehicles rather than other modes of transport that behave differently. More specifically, while motorcyclist fatalities occur more frequently than passenger vehicles, when accounting for vehicle distance traveled only a limited number of research studies address their behavior at curved road sections. Method: This paper presents the findings of field operational tests carried out by motorcyclists along two-lane rural roads with a wide range of horizontal curves using an instrumented motorcycle. Key objectives of the research included the conditions under which the motorcyclists differentiate their trajectory in regards to the direction of the horizontal curves, the correlation between the trajectory and the geometry of the road, and the impact of the lighting conditions on riders’ behavior. Results: The research showed that motorcyclists tend to ride closer to the centerline of the road, neglect the hazards associated with dim lighting conditions, and maintain constant speed in the left hand and the right-hand horizontal curves.     

Motorcycle fuel tanks and pelvic fractures: A motorcycle fuel tank syndrome

Objective: Pelvic injuries are a serious and commonly occurring injury to motorcycle riders involved in crashes, yet there has been limited research investigating the mechanisms involved in these injuries. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms involved in pelvic injuries to crashed motorcyclists.

Method: This study involved in-depth crash investigation and 2 convenience-based data sets were used. These data sets investigated motorcycle crashes in the Sydney, Newcastle, and Adelaide regions. Participants included motorcycle riders who had crashed either on a public road or private property within the study areas. The mechanism of injury and the type of injuries were investigated.

Results: The most frequent cause of pelvic injuries in crashed motorcyclists was due to contact with the motorcycle fuel tank during the crash (85%). For riders who had come into contact with the fuel tank, the injury types were able to be grouped into 3 categories based on the complexity of the injury. The complexity of the injury appeared to increase with impact speed but this was a nonsignificant trend. The pelvic injuries that did not occur from contact with the fuel tank in this sample differed in asymmetry of loading and did not commonly involve injury to the bladder. They were commonly one-sided injuries but this differed based on the point of loading; however, a larger sample of these injuries needs to be investigated.

Conclusion: Overall improvements in road safety have not been replicated in the amelioration of pelvic injuries in motorcyclists and improvements in the design of crashworthy motorcycle fuel tanks appear to be required.     

A multinomial logit analysis of factors associated with severity of motorcycle crashes in Ghana

Objective: The objective of this study was to explore the factors affecting motorcycle crash severity in Ghana.

Methods: A retrospective analysis of motorcycle crash data between 2011 and 2015 was conducted using a motorcycle crash data set extracted from the National Road Traffic Crash Database at the Building and Road Research Institute (BRRI) in Ghana. Injury severity was classified into 4 categories: Fatal, hospitalized, injured, and damage only. A multinomial logit modeling framework was used to identify the possible determinants of motorcycle crash severity.

Results: During the study period, a total of 8,516 motorcycle crashes were recorded, of which 22.9% were classified as fatal, 42.1% were classified as hospitalized injuries, 29.4% were classified as slight injuries, and 5.6% were classified as damage-only crashes. The estimation results indicate that the following factors increase the probability of fatal injuries: At a junction; weekend; signage; poor road shoulder; village settlement; tarred and good road surface; and collision between motorcycle and heavy goods vehicle (HGV). Motorcycle crashes occurring during the daytime and on the weekend increases the probability of hospitalized injury. The results also suggest that motorcycle crashes occurring during the daytime, in curves or inclined portions of roads, or in unclear weather conditions decrease the probability of fatal injury.

Conclusions: This study provides further empirical evidence to support motorcycle crash modeling research, which is lacking in developing countries. The ability to understand the various factors that influence motorcycle crash severity is a step forward in providing an appropriate basis upon which informed motorcycle crash policies can be developed. Particular attention should be given to the provision of road signage at junctions and speed humps and controlling traffic during the weekend. In addition, road maintenance should be carried out periodically to address motorcycle safety in Ghana.     

The determinants of motorcyclists helmet use: Urban arterial road in Khon Kaen City,Thailand

IntroductionCurrently, Thailand incurs the highest death toll of motorcyclists in the world. The aim of this study was to explore the factors influencing helmet use of motorcyclists in Khon Kaen City, Thailand by using the Logistic regression analysis.MethodThe samples, consisting of 27,977 riders and 6,947 riding passengers, were collected by CCTV installed at several signalized intersections along urban arterial roads.ResultsThe observation results reveal that only 67% of motorcyclists wore the helmets. The analysis results reveal that the helmet use of motorcyclists was significantly associated with the riding status, number of passengers, apparent age, motorcycle class, time of day, the presence of police booths at intersections and, especially, red light running behavior. The riders tended to wear helmets at 2.7 times higher rates than passengers. Adult motorcyclists tended to wear the helmets at 2.8 times higher rates than children. The motorcyclists riding the motorcycles over 125 cc tended to wear the helmets 1.9 times higher than those riding motorcycles under 125 cc. The motorcyclists riding in the morning and the afternoon tended to wear the helmets 5.0 and 3.8 times higher than in the evening. The motorcyclists riding through intersections with police booths tended to wear the helmets 2.2 times higher than those riding through intersection without police booths. However, the red light running riders intend to wear the helmets 0.6 times less than the legal riders.ConclusionsThe outcome of this study could determine the factors influencing motorcyclist's helmet use.Practical ImplicationsIt will be useful for a development of 100% helmet use program designed to lessen the fatality of motorcyclists along the urban arterial roads.     

Mobile phone use while riding a motorcycle and crashes among university students

Objective: Motorcycle crashes are a significant road safety challenge, particularly in many low- and middle-income countries where motorcycles represent the vast majority of their vehicle fleet. Though risky riding behaviors, such as speeding and riding under the influence of alcohol, have been identified as important contributors to motorcycle crashes, little is understood about the effect of using a mobile phone while riding on motorcycle crash involvement. This article investigates crash involvement among motorcycle riders with risky riding behaviors, particularly using a mobile phone while riding.

Methods: Data were obtained from an online survey of university students’ risky riding behaviors in Vietnam administered between March and May 2016 (n?=?665).

Results: Results show that 40% of motorcycle riders reported to have experienced a crash/fall and nearly 24% of motorcycle riders indicated that they had been injured in a crash/fall. Effects of mobile phone use while riding on safety of motorcycle riders are highlighted. Specifically, more frequent use of a mobile phone for texting or searching for information while riding is associated with a higher chance of being involved in a crash/fall. The results also show that drink riding is associated with a higher chance of being injured.

Conclusions: Overall this article reveals significant safety issues of using a mobile phone while riding a motorcycle, providing valuable insight for designing education and publicity campaigns.     

The effect of motorcyclists’ age on injury severities in single-motorcycle crashes with unobserved heterogeneity

Introduction: Due to the myriad of unique characteristics associated with motorcycle operation, motorcycle safety is a public health concern as complex as it is serious. National crash data suggest motorcyclists are 28 times more likely to be killed when compared to passenger car occupants. In the state of Florida, motorcycle crashes are 1.5 times more likely to result in the death of the rider, placing Florida among the top deadliest states for motorcyclists in the nation. Using police-reported data from 2016, this study addresses the complex and interconnected nature of the many characteristics associated with motorcycle operation by investigating the effect of age on motorcyclists’ riding behavior as it relates to injury severity for single-motorcycle crashes in the state of Florida. Method: To account for unobserved heterogeneity in the crash data, mixed logit models with heterogeneity in means and variances were estimated to model three injury severity outcomes (non-visible, severe, and fatal) for three age groups (under 30, 30–49, and 50 and above). Results: Model results indicate that age affects motorcyclists’ safety perception and ability to assess risks, thereby influencing their involvement in risky behaviors. Characteristics unique to motorcycle operation—spatial characteristics, speed, motorcycle type, time of day, helmet usage, alcohol consumption, ejection from motorcycle, passenger presence, endorsement status, and lighting—are further complicated by their dependency on the characteristics of the individual motorcyclist. Age of motorcyclist indicates a relationship between motorcyclists’ behavior and perceived safety. Conclusion: The model results indicated that statistically significant parameters constituted different models and they were not equal across the age groups of motorcyclists: aged under 30, aged 30–49, and aged 50 and above. Through advanced econometric modeling, this study fills a gap in the existing literature and assists the safety professionals, motorcycle trainers, policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and roadway designers in developing countermeasures.     

Motorcyclist injury severity in angle crashes at T-junctions: Identifying significant factors and analysing what made motorists fail to yield to motorcycles

Evidence in literature suggested that motorists’ failure to give way to motorcycles at junctions is the main contributory factor to motorcycle–car accidents that involve gap acceptance (i.e., approach-turn and angle crashes). This paper attempts to examine how motorist’s failure to give way affects motorcyclist injury severity in angle crashes at T-junctions, while controlling for other factors (demographic, vehicle, crash, and environmental factors). Binary logistic models of motorcyclist injury severity were estimated using the data extracted from the Stats19 accident injury database (1991–2004). Angle collisions were classified into several sub-crashes based on the manoeuvres motorcycles and cars were making prior to the accidents. The modelling results showed that injuries were greatest when a travelling-straight motorcycle on the main road crashed into a right-turn car from the minor road, particularly at stop-/yield-controlled junctions. Such crash pattern was assumed to be an accident involving right-of-way violation. Using binary logistic models, factors determining the likelihood of motorist’s failure to yield to motorcycles were also examined. The implications of the research findings of this present study were provided.     

Risky behaviors and helmet use among young adolescent motorcyclists in Southern Thailand

Background: In Thailand, road traffic injuries are the leading cause of death for youth ages 15–19 years, with 80% of the injuries and deaths from motorcycle accidents. Objectives: To determine the prevalence of child and young adolescent motorcyclists in Hat Yai municipality and their risk behaviors. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted between June 2011 and March 2012 in which 2,471 students, ages 8 to 18 years, were recruited from 9 primary and secondary schools in Hat Yai municipality. The questionnaire included questions on being a motorcycle rider or passenger, risky behaviors, and helmet use while riding. Results: Of the total, 1,573 (63.7%) were riders and 898 (36.3%) were pillion passengers. The majority of the riders younger than 15 years rode their motorcycle mainly only in narrow streets for a short trip. Only 30% of the riders wore a helmet every time they rode a motorcycle. About 10% of the participants riding or a passenger on a motorcycle had consumed alcohol at least once before riding their motorcycle. Multiple logistic regression analysis found that motorcycle injuries were significantly associated with speeds greater than 60 km/h, not wearing a helmet while riding, and alcohol consumption before riding (odds ratios 1.63, 1.59, and 3.09, respectively). Conclusion: Nearly two thirds of young adolescents in Hat Yai municipality were motorcycle riders. These young adolescents were at risk of traffic injuries because more than 50% of them had ridden at high speed or not worn a helmet while riding, and some of them had consumed alcohol before riding.     

Risky driving and the perception of motorcycle accident causes among chinese motorcyclists in Hong Kong

Objective: The primary purposes of this study were to explore the relationship between risk-taking acts while driving motorcycles and perceived causes of motorcycle accidents, as well as their contribution to active involvement in traffic accidents among Chinese motorcyclists in Hong Kong. Active involvement means the riders was likely at fault for the crash. Methods: A total of 774 motorcyclists were recruited, of whom 292 had been involved in active motorcycle accident in the previous 3?years. All were asked to fill in a questionnaire, which was developed to assess their risk-taking acts while driving a motorcycle and perception of motorcycle accident causes. Results: The results of the study revealed 3 dimensions of accident causes, namely, driving-related, environment-related, and belief-related causes. These motorcycle accident causes were correlated with risk-taking acts while driving a motorcycle. A multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that risk-taking acts while driving motorcycles (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 1.036, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.020-1.052), perception of driving-related cause (adjusted OR: 0.941, 95% CI: 0.916-0.967), and belief-related cause (adjusted OR: 1.134, 95% CI: 1.088-1.182) were significant factors contributing to involvement in active traffic accidents by motorcycle riders after controlling for concurrent demographic variables. Conclusions: The study highlights that perceived causes of motorcycle accidents are multidimensional, including those areas related to driving, the environment, and beliefs. It substantiates previous studies that a higher degree of driving-related risk perception is related to a lower degree of risk-taking acts while driving. Further research is needed to understand why belief-related causes, sometimes called superstitions, lead riders to believe that it is beyond their ability to affect accident causation and prevention.     

Fatal motorcycle crashes in wide urban area of Zagreb,Croatia—A 10-year review

Objective: The objective of our study was to determine the prevalence of alcohol and drug intoxication among fatally injured motorcyclists in a wide urban area of Zagreb, Croatia.

Methods: We conducted a single-center observational retrospective study over a 10-year period (2007–2016) in 3 counties covering an area including 1.2 million residents. We reviewed the records on fatally injured motorcyclists, collecting information relating to sex, age, cause of death, time of death in relation to the time of the crash, and the circumstances of the crash (time of day, day of the week, season). Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and toxicology analysis results were collected and analyzed.

Results: We identified 163 deaths (95.7% males, 4.3% females). Overall, 64.2% of the victims were 20 to 39 years old. The majority (50.9%) of those fatally injured were responsible for causing the traffic crash; the rest were determined not to be responsible or the responsibility could not be determined. The most frequent causes of death were multiple injuries (55.8%) and isolated head trauma (23.3%). The rider’s BAC was above the legal limit for driving (>0.50?g/kg) in 53.8% of cases, with a mean BAC of 1.91?g/kg. There was no difference in riding a motorcycle with a BAC above the legal limit between groups defined as younger (≤39 years of age) and older (≥40 years of age). The number of people with an illegal BAC was significantly higher during weekends than during the work week. The BAC of riders who were responsible for the crash was significantly higher than that of those who were not responsible or whose responsibility could not be determined. Use of illegal drugs or nontherapeutic use of legal drugs was not common and was detected in 10.4% of fatally injured riders.

Conclusions: Alcohol intoxication has a major role in motorcycle crash–related mortality. A significant difference in BAC between fatally injured riders responsible for the accident and those who were not responsible implies that measures directed toward prevention of drinking and driving behavior could lower the number of fatal motorcycle crashes. Weekend measures, especially during spring and summer, could have particularly significant effects.     

A study of fatal pedestrian crashes at rural low-volume road intersections in southwest China

Objective: Although intersections correspond to a small proportion of the entire roadway system, they account for a disproportionally high number of fatal pedestrian crashes, especially on rural roads situated in low- and middle-income countries. This article examines pedestrian safety at rural intersections and suggests applicable accident prevention treatments by providing an in-depth analysis of 28 fatal pedestrian crashes from 8 low-volume roads in southwest China.

Methods: The driving reliability and error analysis method (DREAM) is a method to support a systematic classification of accident causation information and to facilitate aggregation of that information into patterns of contributing factors. This is the first time that DREAM was used to analyze pedestrian–vehicle crashes and provide suggestions for road improvements in China.

Results: The key issues adversely affecting pedestrian safety can be organized in 4 distinctive thematic categories, namely, deficient intersection safety infrastructure, lack of pedestrian safety education, inadequate driver training, and insufficient traffic law enforcement. Given that resources for traffic safety investments in rural areas are limited, it is determined that the potential countermeasures should focus on low-cost, easily implementable, and long-lasting measures increasing the visibility and predictability of pedestrian movement and reducing speeding and irresponsible driving among drivers and risk-taking behaviors among pedestrians.

Conclusions: Accident prevention treatments are suggested based on their suitability for rural areas in southwest China. These countermeasures include introducing better access management and traffic calming treatments, providing more opportunities for pedestrian education, and enhancing the quality of driver training and traffic law enforcement.     

Exposure factors of Victoria's active motorcycle fleet related to serious injury crash risk

Objective: The purpose of this study was to describe the nature and extent of current powered 2-wheeler (PTW) risk exposures in order to support future efforts to improve safety for this mode of transport.

Methods: A cross-sectional analysis of the control arm of a population-based case-control study was conducted. The control sample was selected from 204 sites on public roads within 150 km of the city of Melbourne that were locations of recent serious injury motorcycle crashes. Traffic observations and measurements at each site were sampled for a mean of 2 h on the same type of day (weekday, Saturday, or Sunday) and within 1 h of the crash time. Photographs of passing riders during this observation period recorded data relating to characteristics of PTWs, age of riders, travel speed of PTWs and all vehicles, time gaps between vehicles, visibility, and protective clothing use.

Results: Motorcycles and scooters represented 0.6% of all traffic (compared with 4% of all vehicle registrations). Riders were significantly more likely to have larger time gaps in front and behind when compared to other vehicles. The average travel speed of motorcycles was not significantly different than the traffic, but a significantly greater proportion were exceeding the speed limit when compared to other vehicles (6 vs. 3%, respectively). The age of registered owners of passing motorcycles was 42 years. Over half of riders were wearing dark clothing with no fluorescent or reflective surfaces. One third of motorcyclists had maximum coverage of motorcycle-specific protective clothing.

Conclusions: A very low prevalence of motorcyclists combined with relatively higher rates of larger time gaps to other vehicles around motorcycles may help explain their overrepresentation in injury crashes where another vehicle fails to give way. An increased risk of injury in the event of a crash exists for a small but greater proportion of motorcyclists (compared to other vehicle types) who were exceeding the speed limit. An apparent shift toward older age of the active rider population may be reducing injury crash risk relative to exposure time. There is significant scope to improve the physical conspicuity of motorcyclists and the frequency of motorcycle specific protective clothing use. These results can be used to inform policy development and monitor progress of current and future road safety initiatives.