Child passenger injury risk in motor vehicle crashes: a comparison of nighttime and daytime driving by teenage and adult drivers

INTRODUCTION: To examine the association between child passenger injury risk, restraint use, and crash time (day vs. night) for children in crashes of vehicles driven by teenage versus adult drivers. METHODS: Cross-sectional study involving telephone interviews with insured drivers in a probability sample of 6,184 crashes involving 10,028 children. RESULTS: Child passengers in teen nighttime crashes had an increased injury risk and an increased risk of restraint nonuse compared with those in teen daytime crashes. This increased injury risk can be explained by differences in the age of child passengers, collision type, and child passenger's restraint status associated with time of day. CONCLUSIONS: In order to limit the risk of injury to child passengers driven by teens, Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) laws should include provisions restricting nighttime driving, as well as mandates for age-appropriate restraint for child passengers. Consideration should also be given for education in child passenger safety for novice teen drivers as part of the licensing process. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Results of this study can be used to support advocacy efforts by the automotive industry and others to promote nighttime driving restrictions on novice drivers. In addition, given that both driver groups were more likely to be involved in a single-vehicle collision during the night, technologies such as electronic stability control may offer opportunities for protection. Further reseach on specific circumstances of teen nighttime crashes is needed to inform industry efforts to improve visibility or vehicle operation under poor lighting conditions.     

The provisional license: nighttime and passenger restrictions--a literature review

PROBLEM: Due to inexperience and inadequate driving skills, the road is a very risky place for young and beginning drivers, yet such experience and skills can only be built by increased driving and exposure to risks on the road. Graduated driver licensing (GDL) allows beginning drivers to get their initial driving experience under less risky conditions and gradually eases them into more complex driving situations. This paper reviews the literature exploring two key features of the intermediate licensing phase of GDL, nighttime driving restrictions and passenger restrictions. METHOD: Literature review. RESULTS: Nighttime driving restrictions have been shown to effectively reduce the number and rate of crash involvements on the part of teenage drivers. Data suggest that having passengers in the car increases the likelihood of a fatal injury in young drivers and that this risk increases with the number of passengers. Young drivers were more likely to cause a crash when accompanied by their peers. DISCUSSION: Nighttime driving and passenger restrictions are effective in decreasing injuries among teenage drivers and their passengers, especially in the context of a full GDL system. Several research questions remain to be answered in order to fully refine and optimize the impact of these provisional measures.     

Passenger effects on teenage driving and opportunities for reducing the risks of such travel

OBJECTIVES: To review the research evidence concerning the effects of passengers on teenage driving and crash involvement, and to explore ways to reduce negative effects. METHODS: Review of the international literature on these topics. RESULTS: Passenger presence increases crash risk for teenage drivers, especially when the passengers are other teenagers and especially when they are male. Female passengers do not have the same effects. Teenagers are more susceptible to peer influences than adults. The combination of passenger-induced distraction and driving inexperience can disrupt driving behavior, and there is evidence that teenage driver risk taking increases in vehicles with multiple teenagers. Possible ways to reduce the resulting crash problem include altering the in-vehicle behavior of teenagers or influencing their selection of travel partners. Legal restrictions on passengers with teenage drivers have been found effective in reducing the crash problem. Parental monitoring of teenage driving behavior, and programs aimed at teenagers themselves, could be other options but their efficacy is unproven. It currently is unknown why female passengers have a different effect than males or if that might offer clues about future interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Despite passenger restrictions in the majority of states, 42% of 16- and 17-year-old drivers in fatal crashes in 2005 were transporting teenagers with no adults in the vehicle; 61% of teenage passenger deaths (1,222 in 2005) occurred in vehicles driven by other teenagers. Wider application of passenger restrictions is indicated. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Ways to make passenger restrictions more effective are needed, and other techniques for reducing this major problem need development and testing.     

Factors related to seat belt use among fatally injured teenage drivers

PROBLEM: In the United States, teenage drivers have a higher crash risk and lower observed seat belt use than other age groups. METHOD: Seat belt use was examined for teenage (16-19 years) drivers who were fatally injured in traffic crashes occurring in the United States during the years 1995-2000. Vehicle, driver, and crash factors potentially related to belt use were examined. State differences in belt use rates among fatally injured teenage drivers were related to states' observed belt use rates for all ages and other state-level variables. RESULTS: During 1995-2000, mean belt use was 36% among fatally injured teenage drivers and 23% among fatally injured teenage passengers. One of the strongest predictors of higher belt use for both drivers and passengers was whether the crash occurred in a state with a primary seat belt law. Belt use rates for 1995-2000 for fatally injured teenage drivers ranged from 20% or less in six states to more than 60% in two states. States with the highest use rates were those with strong primary belt use laws and those with high rates of observed belt use for all ages. Lower belt use among fatally injured teenage drivers was associated with increasing age; male drivers; drivers of SUVs, vans, or pickup trucks rather than cars; older vehicles; crashes occurring late at night; crashes occurring on rural roadways; single vehicle crashes; and drivers with BACs of 0.10 or higher. Teenage driver belt use declined as the number of teenage passengers increased, but increased in the presence of at least one passenger 30 years or older. IMPACT ON TRAFFIC SAFETY: It is suggested that to increase teenage belt use, states should enact strong primary belt use laws and mount highly publicized efforts to enforce these laws. Graduated driver licensing systems should incorporate strong provisions that require seat belt use by teenage drivers and passengers.     

Naturalistic teenage driving study: Findings and lessons learned

IntroductionThis paper summarizes the findings on novice teenage driving outcomes (e.g., crashes and risky driving behaviors) from the Naturalistic Teenage Driving Study.MethodSurvey and driving data from a data acquisition system (global positioning system, accelerometers, cameras) were collected from 42 newly licensed teenage drivers and their parents during the first 18 months of teenage licensure; stress responsivity was also measured in teenagers.ResultOverall teenage crash and near-crash (CNC) rates declined over time, but were > 4 times higher among teenagers than adults. Contributing factors to teenage CNC rates included secondary task engagement (e.g., distraction), kinematic risky driving, low stress responsivity, and risky social norms.ConclusionsThe data support the contention that the high novice teenage CNC risk is due both to inexperience and risky driving behavior, particularly kinematic risky driving and secondary task engagement.Practical ApplicationsGraduated driver licensing policy and other prevention efforts should focus on kinematic risky driving, secondary task engagement, and risky social norms.     

Classifying and predicting risky driving among novice drivers: A group-based trajectory approach

Introduction: Classifying risky driving among new teenage drivers is important for efficiently targeting driving interventions. We thoroughly investigated whether novice drivers can be clustered by their driving outcome profiles over time. Methods: A sample of 51 newly licensed teen drivers was recruited and followed over a period of 20 weeks. An in-vehicle video recording system was used to gather data on dangerous driving events referred to as DDEs (elevated g-force, near-crash, and crash events), risky driving behaviors referred to as RDBs (e.g., running stop signs, cell phone use while driving), and miles traveled. The DDE and RDB weekly rates rate were determined by dividing the number of DDEs and RDBs in a week by the number of miles traveled in that week, respectively. Group-based trajectory modeling was used to map the clustering of DDE rate and RDB rate patterns over time and their associated covariates. Results: Two distinct DDE rate patterns were found. The first group (69.1% of the study population) had a lower DDE rate which was consistent over time. The second had a higher DDE rate pattern (30.9%) and characterized by a rising trend in DDE rate followed by a steady decrease (inverted U-shaped pattern). Two RDB rate patterns were also identified: a lower RDB rate pattern (83.4% of the study population) and a higher RDB rate pattern (16.6%). RDB and DDE rate patterns were positively related, and therefore, co-occurred. The results also showed that males were more likely than females to be in the higher DDE and RDB rate patterns. Conclusion: The groups identified by trajectory models may be useful for targeting driving interventions to teens that would mostly benefit as the different trajectories may represent different crash risk levels. Practical applications: Parents using feedback devices to monitor the driving performance of their teens can use the initial weeks of independent driving to classify their teens as low or high-risk drivers. Teens making a very few DDEs during their early weeks of independent driving are likely to remain in the lower risk group over time and can be spared from monitoring and interventions. However, teens making many DDEs during their initial weeks of unsupervised driving are likely to continue to make even more DDEs and would require careful monitoring and targeted interventions.     

Characteristics and risks of drivers with low annual distance driven

OBJECTIVES: It has been noted by several authors that risk (defined only in terms of total expected numbers of crash involvements per total distance driven) paints a misleading picture of crash liability, particularly for the young and the old, as their high risk is associated with risky driving patterns typical of people who drive low annual kms. This article sets out to analyze these driving patterns of low-km drivers and to evaluate the risk of these patterns. As licensing programs tend to focus on young and old drivers, who tend to drive lower annual distances, income and employment data are also analyzed for low-km drivers. This is to provide a better picture for policy makers of the sort of people and the sorts of transportation requirements that their policies may affect. METHODS: Crash data and travel data were disaggregated by driver characteristics and by driving conditions (road type, day and night, weekend and weekday) and combined to form estimates of risk for typical driving patterns of driver groups. Characteristics of driving patterns and of the drivers themselves were derived for groups defined by age and by the amount of annual driving undertaken. RESULTS: Older drivers who drive less tend to have higher risk per km mainly due to their predominantly urban trips. Nevertheless, because older drivers on average manage to reduce their risk per distance driven by choosing driving patterns that are safer than the driving patterns of other age groups, the risk of older drivers as a group is not overestimated. CONCLUSION: Despite being quite different from one another, the low- and high-km driving patterns of younger drivers were found to impose identical risks.     

Assessing the impacts of signal coordination on the crash risks of various driving cohorts

Introduction: Signal coordination has been wildly implemented on urban arterials to improve traffic efficiency. The impacts of signal coordination on traffic safety, however, are largely overlooked, particularly on crash propensities of driver–vehicle cohorts, which will vary due to changing traffic flow patterns. Method: The paper aims to compare crash risks of various driving cohorts (measured by relative crash involvement ratio) on arterials with and without signal coordination with quasi-induced exposure technique, which has been well developed in estimating crash risks for driver–vehicle characteristics (i.e., driver age, gender, and vehicle type). Michigan traffic crash data (2000–2014) are retrieved for the case study. Results: The results indicate that: (a) when signal coordination is implemented, young, male drivers, and pickups are associated with more crash responsibilities; (b) crash propensities vary for different disaggregated situations, e.g., young drivers may experience the rapid increase in crash risks during the peak hours; and (c) more hazardous actions (e.g., failing to stop in assured clear distance) are witnessed for the high-risk driving cohorts on the coordinated arterials than non-coordinated ones. Conclusions and practical applications: The findings highlight the importance of safety impact analysis of signal coordination, and serve to guide the potential improvements of safety operation and management of signal coordinated arterials.     

Driving, navigation, and vehicular technology: experiences of older drivers and their co-pilots

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article is to explore relationship between older drivers and their passengers (co-pilots) and potential implications of in-vehicle navigation technology on their driving safety. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 44 healthy, community-dwelling older adults (aged 60-83) or 22 married couples. Males identified themselves as drivers and females identified themselves as passengers (i.e., co-pilot). RESULTS: Findings indicate that operating a motor vehicle in older adulthood is a shared activity between drivers and passengers. Older drivers and co-pilots reported their level of interaction depended on their familiarity with their route. Navigating unfamiliar areas, particularly large urban centers, was identified as the most challenging driving situation. Participants identified their level of collaboration would increase with the advent of in-vehicle navigation technology. Safety concerns related to the use of this technology, included distraction of both drivers and passengers. Differences amongst couples in their perceptions of using this technology were linked to their level of experience with using other forms of technology. CONCLUSIONS: Older drivers and passengers identified working closely together when operating a motor vehicle. Further investigation into the effects of in-vehicle navigation technology on the driving safety of older drivers and their co-pilots is warranted.     

Characteristics of teens-with-teens fatal crashes in the United States, 2005–2010

BackgroundMore than 40% of fatal crashes of 16- and 17-year-old drivers occur when transporting teenagers. Characteristics of this predominant crash type and prevention possibilities are described, based on data from fatal crashes in the United States during 2005–2010.ResultsFifty-seven percent of 16- and 17-year old drivers in fatal crashes had at least one passenger. Most commonly, all passengers were ages 13–19 (42% of all drivers and 73% of those with passengers). Of fatal crashinvolved drivers with teenage passengers and no passengers of other ages, 56% had one passenger, 24% had two, and 20% had three or more. Most frequently, passengers were the same sex and within one year of the driver. Risk factors involving speeding, alcohol use, late-night driving, lack of a valid license, seat belt non-use, and crash responsibility were more prevalent with teenage passengers than when driving alone, and the prevalence of these factors increased with the number of teenage passengers. Many risk factors were most prevalent with passengers ages 20–29, although few crashes had this occupant configuration. Risk factors were least prevalent with a passenger 30 or older.DiscussionFatal crashes of 16- and 17-year-old drivers with teen passengers are a common crash scenario, despite passenger restrictions in 42 states and the District of Columbia during some or all of the study period. The proportion of these fatal crashes decreased slightly from 46% in 1995 (pre-GDL) to 43% in 2010 and showed no signs of decreasing during the six-year study period (range 41% to 43%).Practical applicationsExisting passenger restrictions are relatively weak and could be strengthened. Fatal crashes involving teen passengers, especially multiple passengers, are more likely to involve alcohol, late-night driving, driver error, and invalid licensure, so stepped-up enforcement of existing laws involving these behaviors might reduce the prevalence of such crashes.     

Progress in teenage crash risk during the last decade

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study was to examine the most recent data on teenagers' fatal and nonfatal crashes in the United States to determine current crash rates as well as changes in crash rates during the past decade METHODS: Data for calendar years 1996 and 2005 were extracted for fatal crashes from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System and for police-reported crashes from the National Automotive Sampling System/General Estimates System. To calculate crash rates, population data were obtained from the Census Bureau, and mileage data were obtained from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey RESULTS: During 2001-02, the latest year for which mileage data are available, 16 year-old drivers had higher fatal and nonfatal crash rates per mile traveled than all but the very oldest drivers. However, fewer 16 year-olds typically are licensed to drive and they drive fewer miles per year than all but the oldest drivers. Thus, their fatal and nonfatal crash rates per population in 2005 were lower than among other teenagers and among drivers 20-29. During the past decade the most progress has been made in reducing crashes among the youngest drivers. Between 1996 and 2005 both fatal and police-reported crashes per population declined about 40% for 16 year-old drivers, compared with about 25% for 17 year-old drivers and 15-19% for 18 year-old drivers. The greatest reductions for 16 year-olds occurred in nighttime crashes, alcohol-related fatal crashes, and fatal crashes involving multiple teenage passengers. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial progress has been made in reducing fatal and nonfatal crashes per population among 16 year-old drivers. Although this study was not designed to examine the role of graduated licensing, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws, many of which restrict nighttime driving and driving with teenage passengers. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Restrictions on nighttime driving and driving with teenage passengers should be made a part of all states' graduated licensing systems. Historically, 16 year-olds have had the highest crash risk per licensed driver and per mile traveled. Given the dramatic reductions in per population crash rates among 16 year-olds, it is possible that their per mile and per licensed driver rates also have declined and may no longer be as elevated relative to other ages. However, shortcomings in the licensed driver data and a lack of recent mileage data hamper our ability to examine these issues. If we are to continue to provide a yardstick against which we can measure progress among the youngest drivers, immediate steps need to be taken to restore the availability of reliable exposure data.     

Do recommended driving limits affect teen-reported traffic violations and crashes during the first 12 months of independent driving?

OBJECTIVES: Motor vehicle crashes are highly elevated among newly licensed teenage drivers. Limits on high-risk driving conditions by driver licensing policies and parents can protect novice teens from negative driving outcomes, while they experience and driving proficiency. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of strict parent-imposed driving limits on driving outcomes during the first year of licensure. METHODS: A sample of 3,743 Connecticut teens was recruited and randomized to the Checkpoints Program or comparison condition. Assessments conducted at baseline, licensure, 3-, 6-, and 12-months postlicensure included parent-imposed driving limits, traffic violations, and crashes. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to assess the effects of strict parent limits on traffic violations and crashes during the first year of licensure. RESULTS: Thirty percent of teens reported at least one traffic violation and 40% reported at least one crash. More strict parent-imposed limits at licensure, 3-, 6-, and 12-months postlicensure, were associated with fewer violations and crashes in multivariate analyses. Notably, adherence to recommended night curfew was consistently associated with fewer violations and crashes. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that strict parent-imposed limits may protect novice teen drivers from negative driving outcomes.     

Other high-risk factors for young drivers--how graduated licensing does,doesn't,or could address them

PROBLEM: Young drivers, particularly those who are newly licensed, have a very high crash risk. This paper examines the risk factors underlying their high crash rates and assesses the extent to which existing graduated licensing programs address these risks and whether improvements to these programs should be considered. METHOD: Review and synthesis of the literature. RESULTS: The elevated risk among young drivers of being in an injury crash is the result of a number of factors found alone or in combination, such as risky driving, alcohol use, seat belt nonuse, driver distraction, fatigue, and vehicle choice. Nighttime and passenger restrictions, adopted widely in the United States, work by keeping drivers out of hazardous situations rather than by addressing risk factors directly. However, the risk factors remain in play in driving situations not specifically restricted by law. Although other graduated licensing components adopted around the world-more stringent exit tests (i.e., you need to pass a test to move to the next stage), hazard perception tests, and restrictions on speed, vehicle power, and roadway access-make sense based on the identified risk factors, they are not yet supported by research. Should research findings warrant it, consideration should be given to providing guidance to parents about how to keep their beginning drivers safe, including information on vehicle choice. IMPACT ON RESEARCH, PRACTICE, AND POLICY: Researchers should continue to monitor and to evaluate innovative approaches to reduce the crash risk of young drivers. The effectiveness of new approaches should be established before adoption on a wider scale takes place.     

The effect of extending graduated driver licensing to older novice drivers in Indiana

Introduction: Graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems have been shown to reduce rates of crashes, injuries, and deaths of young novice drivers. However, approximately one in three new drivers in the United States obtain their first driver’s license at age 18 or older, and thus are exempt from most or all provisions of GDL in most states. Method: In July 2015, the state of Indiana updated its GDL program, extending its restrictions on driving at night and on carrying passengers during the first 6 months of independent driving, previously only applicable to new drivers younger than 18, to all newly-licensed drivers younger than 21 years of age. The current study examined monthly rates of crashes per licensed driver under the affected conditions (driving at night and driving with passengers) among Indiana drivers first licensed at ages 18, 19, and 20 under the updated GDL system compared with drivers licensed at the same ages under the previous GDL system. We used Poisson regression to estimate the association between the GDL system and crash rates, while attempting to control for other factors that might have also influenced crash rates. We used linear regression to estimate the association between the GDL system and the proportion of all crashes that occurred under conditions restricted by the GDL program. Results: Results showed, contrary to expectations, that rates of crashes during restricted nighttime hours and with passengers were higher among drivers licensed under the updated GDL system. This mirrored a statewide increase in crash rates among drivers of all ages over the study period and likely reflected increased overall driving exposure. The proportions of all crashes that were at night or with passengers did not change. Practical Applications: More research is needed to understand how older novice drivers respond when GDL systems originally designed for younger novice drivers are applied to them.     

Alcohol-related deaths among young passengers: An analysis of national alcohol-related fatal crashes

Introduction: There is consensus that riding with an impaired driver (RWI) constitutes a major threat to public health. The aim of this study was to characterize the factors contributing to the motor-vehicle deaths of 15–20 year-old (y/o) passengers that RWI with a peer. Method: Secondary analyses of the 2010–2018 Fatality Analysis Reporting System. 5,673 passengers aged 15–20 y/o killed while riding in passenger cars with a driver aged 21 or older, 3,542 of these drivers also aged 15–20 y/o. Analyses were conducted between October 2019 and December 2020. Results: Sixty-three percent of the young passengers were killed while riding with a driver 15–20 y/o. Of these drivers, 26.8% had a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) >0.00 g/dL and 77.1% had a BAC ≥0.08 g/dL. Compared with those occurring during the day on weekdays, fatalities of young passengers who RWI with a peer driver with a BAC ≥ 0.08 g/dL often occurred on weekend nights (OR = 8.2) and weekday nights (OR = 5.2), and when the passenger and driver were both male (OR = 1.8). Race/ethnicity was not a significant contributor to RWI fatalities. Conclusions: Most 15–20 y/o RWI fatalities occurred on weekends, at night, when the driver was a young peer with a high BAC, and the passenger and driver were male. The high prevalence of fatalities in these high-risk situations suggests that young driver-passenger dynamics may contribute to alcohol-related fatalities. Practical Applications: To curb RWI fatalities among underage passengers, countermeasures should focus not only on underage drinking drivers and riders, but also on drinking drivers of all ages. Prevention should increase focus on situations in which both the young passenger and young driver are males.     

Passenger distractions among adolescent drivers

PROBLEM: Adolescents who drive with peers are known to have a higher risk of crashes. While passengers may distract drivers, little is known about the circumstances of these distractions among teen drivers. METHOD: This study used survey data on driving among 2,144 California high school seniors to examine distractions caused by passengers. RESULTS: Overall, 38.4% of youths who drove reported having been distracted by a passenger. Distractions were more commonly reported among girls and students attending moderate- to high-income schools. Talking or yelling was the most commonly reported type of distraction. About 7.5% of distractions reported were deliberate, such as hitting or tickling the driver or attempting to use the vehicle's controls. Driving after alcohol use and having had a crash as a driver were both significant predictors of reporting passenger-related distraction. CONCLUSION: Adolescents often experience distractions related to passengers, and in some cases these distractions are intentional. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: These results provide information about teenage drivers who are distracted by passenger behaviors. In some cases, passengers attempted to use vehicle controls; however, it seems unlikely that this behavior is common enough to warrant redesign of controls to make them less accessible to passengers.     

Driving circumstances and accidents among novice drivers

OBJECTIVE: The study evaluated the accident risk of certain driving circumstances and driving motives among novice drivers. METHODS: Self-reported exposure and accidents according to driving circumstances and driving motives were compared between young (n = 6,847) and middle-aged (n = 942) male and female novice drivers. For young drivers, self-reported accidents were further compared to fatal accidents (n = 645) in terms of the driving conditions in which they occurred. The survey was conducted in 2002 and the questions regarding the quantity and quality of driving exposure and accidents covered the first four years of the novice drivers' driving career after licensing. Data on fatal accidents related to the period of 1990 to 2000. RESULTS: Leisure-time driving, driving just for fun, and driving with passengers and during evenings and at night was more typical for young drivers than for middle-aged drivers. For middle-aged drivers, the most typical driving was driving to or from work. Driving on errands was more typical for females than males. Nighttime driving was overrepresented in young drivers' self-reported and fatal accidents, compared to the share of young drivers' driving at night. Slippery road conditions were over-represented in young male drivers' self-reported accidents, but not in their fatal accidents, whereas for young females slippery road conditions seemed to increase the propensity of fatal accidents. CONCLUSIONS: The study concluded that some driving conditions increase the risk of certain types of accidents among certain driver groups, but not among all drivers. For example, slippery road conditions were overrepresented in young male drivers' minor (self-reported) accidents, but not in their fatal accidents. For young female drivers slippery road conditions seem to increase the propensity of fatal accidents. Driving circumstances are different in minor (self-reported) and fatal accidents. When drawing conclusions regarding accident risk, it is important to determine the seriousness of the accidents which take place.     

Peer influence predicts speeding prevalence among teenage drivers

Impact on IndustryPreventing speed-related crashes could reduce costs and improve efficiency in the transportation industry.ObjectiveThis research examined the psychosocial and personality predictors of observed speeding among young drivers.MethodSurvey and driving data were collected from 42 newly-licensed teenage drivers during the first 18 months of licensure. Speeding (i.e., driving 10 mph over the speed limit; about 16 km/h) was assessed by comparing speed data collected with recording systems installed in participants' vehicles with posted speed limits.ResultsSpeeding was correlated with elevated g-force event rates (r = 0.335, pb0.05), increased over time, and predicted by day vs. night trips, higher sensation seeking, substance use, tolerance of deviance, susceptibility to peer pressure, and number of risky friends. Perceived risk was a significant mediator of the association between speeding and risky friends.ConclusionThe findings support the contention that social norms may influence teenage speeding behavior and this relationship may operate through perceived risk.     

Enhancing the effectiveness of graduated driver licensing legislation

PROBLEM: Many states have enacted graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems in an effort to reduce the very high crash rates of young beginning drivers. This article addresses how to achieve the maximum benefit from GDL by ensuring compliance with protective restrictions. ENHANCING GDL THROUGH SYSTEM STRUCTURE: The major crash reductions due to GDL systems result from the protective restrictions during the initial two levels, which isolate novice drivers from the highest risk driving situations. Accordingly, GDL systems should include protective restrictions that adequately control the greatest dangers facing young drivers: multiple teen passengers and night driving before midnight. ENCOURAGING COMPLIANCE THROUGH SYSTEM STRUCTURE: Including protective restrictions that are supported by parents and teens will encourage compliance. Furthermore, linking a teen's advancement through GDL to demonstrated responsible driving will likely encourage compliance more than threatening punishment for violations. ENCOURAGING COMPLIANCE THROUGH ENFORCEMENT: Parents are in a prime position to enforce most GDL restrictions, but there is some evidence they do not enforce those restrictions that they consider too extreme. Little is currently known about the involvement of law enforcement in GDL systems, but there is potential for high visibility law enforcement activities to encourage compliance with restrictions. IMPACT ON RESEARCH, PRACTICE, AND POLICY: There is a need for better designed GDL systems in many states; more research is needed to examine compliance with restrictions and to evaluate enforcement efforts by parents and law enforcement.