Interregional comparison of karst disturbance: West-central Florida and southeast Italy

The karst disturbance index (KDI) consists of 31 environmental indicators contained within the five broad categories: geomorphology, hydrology, atmosphere, biota, and cultural. The purpose of this research is to apply the KDI to two distinct karst areas, west Florida, USA, and Apulia, Italy. Through its application, the utility of the index can be validated and other important comparisons can be made, such as differences in the karst legislations implemented in each region and the effect of time exposure to human occupation to each karst terrain. Humans have intensively impacted the karst of southeast Italy for thousands of years compared to only decades in west-central Florida. However, west-central Florida's higher population density allows the region to reach disturbance levels comparable to those reached over a longer period in Apulia. Similarly, Italian karst is more diverse than the karst found in west-central Florida, creating an opportunity to test all the KDI indicators. Overall, major disturbances for southeast Italy karst include quarrying, stone clearing, and the dumping of refuse into caves, while west-central Florida suffers most from the infilling of sinkholes, soil compaction, changes in the water table, and vegetation removal. The application of the KDI allows a benchmark of disturbance to be established and later revisited to determine the changing state of human impact for a region. The highlighting of certain indicators that recorded high levels of disturbance also allows regional planners to allocate resources in a more refined manner.     

金佛山岩溶环境与经济开发对策

岩溶环境是一种缺土、缺水、富钙的极不稳定极其脆弱的生态环境，本文分析了金佛山岩溶环境的形成，探讨了该区现有的资源优势及其岩溶生态环境的脆弱性对经济发展的滞后作用，并针对该区存在的资源优势和环境劣势，提出了相应的经济开发措施，指出金佛山经济开发不能以牺牲环境保护和生态建设为代价，必须把它们放到与经济开放并重的位置。     

Development of a bird integrity index: using bird assemblages as indicators of riparian condition

We describe the development of a bird integrity index (BII) that uses bird assemblage information to assess human impacts on 13 stream reaches in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, USA. We used bird survey data to test 62 candidate metrics representing aspects of bird taxonomic richness, tolerance or intolerance to human disturbance, dietary preferences, foraging techniques, and nesting strategies that were affected positively or negatively by human activities. We evaluated the metric responsiveness by plotting each one against a measure of site disturbance that included aspects of land use/land cover, road density, riparian cover, and stream channel and substrate conditions. In addition, we eliminated imprecise and highly correlated (redundant) metrics, leaving 13 metrics for the final index. Individual metric scores ranged continuously from 0 to 10, and index scores were weighted to range from 0 to 100. Scores were calibrated using historical species information to set expectations for the number of species expected under minimally disturbed conditions. Site scores varied from 82 for the least disturbed stream reach to 8.5 for an urban site. We compared the bird integrity index site scores with the performance of other measures of biotic response developed during this study: a fish index of biointegrity (IBI) and two benthic macroinvertebrate metrics. The three assemblages agreed on the general level of disturbance; however, individual sites scored differently depending on specific indicator response to in-stream or riparian conditions. The bird integrity index appears to be a useful management and monitoring tool for assessing riparian integrity and communicating the results to the public. Used together with aquatic indicator response and watershed data, bird assemblage information contributes to a more complete picture of stream condition.     

THE AMERICAN INDIAN AND MISSOURI RIVER WATER DEVELOPMENTS1

ABSTRACT: The construction of three Missouri River main stem dams, Garrison, Oahe and Fort Randall, and the related reservoir taking caused social and economic changes on five Indian reservations, Fort Berthold, Cheyenne River, Standing Rock, Crow Creek and Lower Brute. The inundation of Missouri River riparian lands caused the loss of important cultural, social and economic environments. Ninety percent of the reservations timber, seventy-five percent of its wildlife and most of the fertile cropland were in the reservoir taking area. Urban and more fertile environments downstream and to the east received most of the projects benefits. The Indian minority on the five reservations received few economic and social benefits after bearing a disporportionate share of the social and economic costs of the developments. Relocation was forced upon those who had the longest historic and cultural claim to the land. The social costs to the American Indian occasioned by the Missouri River water developments illustrates two broad areas seldom considered during the decision process. First, the unique historic, cultural or religious values of minorities affected by developments. Second, the disproportionate spacial allocation of both benefits and costs. The second item includes social, economic and cultural considerations in not just a geographic framework but a cultural framework as well.     

Development of a Fish-Based Index of Biotic Integrity for Wadeable Streams in Southern China

With economic development in China, human-induced pressures on aquatic environments have grown and created an urgent need for tools measuring the ecological condition of aquatic systems. However, biological indicators for wadeable streams in China were poorly developed. This study developed and validated a multi-metric index of fish assemblages for wadeable streams of southern China to meet the requirement of the water project which has been carried on in China in recent years. Fifty-seven stream sites were sampled in April–May and November–December 2010 to develop an index of biotic integrity. A set of 45 candidate metrics were evaluated for range, responsiveness and redundancy, resulting in the selection of six metrics for the index: number of native species, number of rheophilic species, proportion of benthic riffle individuals, number of lithophilic species, number of omnivore species, and number of fish per hour sampling. The publicly available census data were used as independent data set to validate our method. Twenty-three sites were assessed as subject to significant (SP) or non-significant pressures (NSP) based on anthropogenic pressure evaluation. Our index performed well in discriminating NSP and SP sites, which suggested that our method could provide an accurate measure for wadeable streams ecosystem condition. We believe this integrated approach would meet the requirements for the water projects of China, and the process of developing the method could be used as reference for managing the subtropical streams in other areas of China or other states.     

NITRATE CONCENTRATIONS IN KARST SPRINGS IN AN EXTENSWELY GRAZED AREA1

ABSTRACT: The impact on water quality by agricultural activity in karst terrain is an important consideration for resource management within the Appalachian Region. Karst areas comprise about 18 percent of the Region's land area. An estimated one-third of the Region's farms, cattle, and agricultural market value are located on karst terrain. Nitrate concentrations were measured in several karst springs in Southeastern West Virginia in order to determine the impact of animal agriculture on nitrate pollution of the karst ground water system. Karst basins with 79, 51, 16, and 0 percent agriculture had mean nitrate concentrations of 15.8, 12.2, 2.7, and 0.4 mg/l, respectively. A strong linear relationship between nitrate concentration and percent agricultural land was shown. Median nitrate concentration increased about 0.19 mg l^-1 per percent increase in agricultural land. Weather patterns were also found to significantly affect the median nitrate concentrations and the temporal variability of those concentrations. Lower nitrate concentrations and lower temporal variability were observed during a severe drought period. It was concluded that agriculture was significantly affecting nitrate concentrations in the karst aquifer. Best management practices may be one way to protect the ground water resource.     

UNCALCULATED IMPACTS OF UNSUSTAINABLE AQUIFER YIELD INCLUDING EVIDENCE OF SUBSURFACE INTERBASIN FLOW1

ABSTRACT: Unsustainable withdrawals from regional aquifers have resulted in adverse impacts considerable distances from the point locations of supply wells. In one area of the southeastern (SE) Coastal Plain, conservative estimates for repair/replacement of some residential wells damaged or destroyed by unsustainable yield from the Floridan aquifer system exceeded $4 million. However, a comprehensive assessment of damage/economic loss to private property and public resources due to unsustainable yield from that regional karst aquifer has not been made. Uncalculated direct costs to home‐owners from damage attributed to those withdrawals are associated with destruction of homes from increased sinkhole formation, devalued waterfront property, and removal of diseased and dead trees. Examples of other uncalculated economic burdens resulting from unsustainable aquifer yield in the SE Coastal Plain include: (1) irreversible damage to the aquifer matrix and concomitant increased potential for groundwater contamination, (2) large‐scale wildfires with subsequent degradation of air quality, debilitation of transportation corridors, and destruction of timber, wildlife habitat and property, and (3) destruction of “protected” natural areas. This paper provides a general background of the regional Floridan aquifer system's karst characteristics, examples of known impacts resulting from ground water mining in the SE Coastal Plain, and examples of additional damage that may be related to unsustainable yield from the Upper Floridan aquifer. Costs of these impacts have not been calculated and are not reflected in the price users pay for ground water. Evidence suggests that the classic watershed management approach must be revised in areas with mined regional karst aquifers to include impacts of induced recharge from the surficial aquifer, and subsurface inter‐basin flow. Likewise, associated impacts to surface water and interrelated systems must be calculated. The true cost of groundwater mining to this and future generations should be determined using a multidisciplinary approach.     

Recovery of lotic periphyton communities after disturbance

Periphyton communities represent potentially excellent candidates for assessing the recovery of lotic ecosystems after disturbance. These communities are ubiquitous, relatively easy to sample and measure (in terms of total community biomass), have short generation times, and may influence the recovery rates of higher trophic levels. The first section of this article analyzes how site availability, species availability, and differential species performance influence periphyton successional dynamics. This background information provides a foundation for understanding how periphytic organisms respond after a disturbance. The second section of this article analyzes how periphyton communities respond to four different types of disturbance (flood events, desiccation, organic nutrient enrichment, and toxic metal exposure). Although data are limited, it is concluded that the fast growth rates and short generation times of periphytic organisms, coupled with their flexible life history strategies and good dispersal ability, allow lotic periphyton communities to recover relatively quickly after a disturbance. In addition, disturbance type and severity, local environmental conditions, and site-specific factors also will influence recovery rates. Future research needs include a better understanding of: (1) what periphyton property(ies) would serve as the best index of recovery; (2) whether or not the robustness of this index varies among different environments and different disturbances; (3) interactions between autotrophs and heterotrophs within the periphyton mat, particularly with respect to nutrient cycling; (4) competitive interactions among organisms; (5) functional redundancy of organisms; and (6) the influence of the riparian zone and channel geomorphology on periphyton recovery rates.     

The use of aggregate complaints data as an indicator of cumulative social impacts of mining: A case study from the Hunter valley,NSW, Australia

Generally speaking, there is a greater amount of quantitative data available to measure and model the cumulative environmental or economic impacts of mining than the social impacts. In part, this is because social impacts are often inherently more difficult to quantify, but historically there have also been fewer regulatory drivers for companies or state agencies to invest in collecting such data. Regulators in some jurisdictions are now starting to require resource companies to report on aspects of their social performance, but companies and regulators are still struggling to identify appropriate metrics, particularly in regards to cumulative impacts. This paper describes an innovative quantitative approach to tracking how communities experience and respond to increased mining activity, using data from the complaints registers maintained by mines located in the Upper Hunter Valley in New South Wales, Australia. In this study, complaints lodged with five separate mines adjacent to the township of Muswellbrook over several years were aggregated and trends analysed. The aggregated set showed that complaint frequency increased with the increase in mining activity but then decreased as individual complaints were addressed. However, when complaints from near-neighbours were removed, it emerged that the proportion of complaints that came from the town itself steadily increased over time. Further analysis indicated that this increase was closely associated with the amount of mine-disturbed land that could be seen from the town over time, as measured using a combination of remotely sensed data and a digital elevation model. This is persuasive evidence of a cumulative social impact that is more than just the sum of the local impacts of individual mines.     

The nature of cumulative impacts on biotic diversity of wetland vertebrates

There is no longer any doubt that cumulative impacts have important effects on wetland vertebrates. Interactions of species diversity and community structure produce a complex pattern in which environmental impacts can play a highly significant role. Various examples show how wetlands maintain the biotic diversity within and among vertebrate populations, and some of the ways that environmental perturbations can interact to reduce this diversity.The trophic and habitat pyramids are useful organizing concepts. Habitat fragmentation can have severe effects at all levels, reducing the usable range of the larger habitat generalists while threatening the genetic integrity of small, isolated populations. The complexity of trophic interactions, and the propensity, or necessity, of vertebrates to switch from one food source to another—something we know little about—makes using food chain support as a variable for predicting environmental impacts very questionable.Historical instances illustrate the effects of the accumulation of impacts on vertebrates. At present it is nearly impossible to predict the result of three or more different kinds of perturbations, although long-range effects can be observed. One case in point is waterfowl; while their ingestion of lead shot, harvesting by hunters during migration, and loss of habitat have caused waterfowl populations to decline, the proportional responsibility of these factors has not been determined.Further examples show multiplicative effects of similar actions, effects with long time lags, diffuse processes in the landscape that may have concentrated effects on a component subsystem, and a variety of other interactions of increasing complexity. Not only is more information needed at all levels; impacts must be assessed on a landscape or regional scale to produce informed management decisions. I conclude that a system of replicate wetland reserves that are allowed to interact naturally with the surrounding landscape will be more effective in preserving biotic diversity than isolated sanctuaries.     

AGRICULTURAL LAND USE EFFECTS ON NITRATE CONCENTRATIONS IN A MATURE KARST AQUIFER1

ABSTRACT: The impact on water quality by agricultural activity in karst terrain is an important consideration for resource management within the Appalachian Region. Karst areas comprise about 18 percent of the Region's land area. An estimated one-third of the Region's farms, cattle, and agricultural market value are on karst terrain. Nitrate concentrations were measured in cave streams draining two primary land management areas. The first area was pasture serving a beef cow-calf operation. The second area was a dairy. Nitrate-N concentrations were highest in cave streams draining the dairy and a cave stream draining an area of pasture where cattle congregate for shade and water. The dairy contributed about 60 to 70 percent of the nitrogen load increase in the study section of the cave system. It was concluded that agriculture was significantly affecting nitrate concentrations in the karst aquifer. Best management practices may be one way to protect the ground water resource.     

Mapping the vulnerability of groundwater to the contamination of four carbonate aquifers in Europe

The vulnerability of four European aquifers with different hydrogeological and climatic characteristics was evaluated using the COP method. The results obtained were statistically analyzed by determination coefficients to measure which factor has greater importance in the vulnerability index. Furthermore, a new parameter has been designed to measure the vulnerability for the whole of the aquifer. The results demonstrate that COP is a useful method to assess the vulnerability of the test sites under consideration. The results obtained are coherent with the conceptual model of each pilot aquifer and the available hydrogeological information (hydrographs, isotopic data, tracer tests). Fissured carbonate aquifers (diffuse flow systems) are less vulnerable than karst aquifers (conduit flow systems) and the vulnerability index is more positively correlated with the O factor (unsaturated zone protection capacity) in the first case. The karst aquifers are more vulnerable than fissured aquifers and they show a higher correlation between the C factor (karst features) and the vulnerability index. Climatic variation (precipitation for example) influences the final vulnerability index of the aquifers according to the weight in the index and the spatial distribution.     

Economic responses to the closure of small-scale coal mines in Chongqing,China

In 1998, China launched a programme to close tens of thousands of small-scale coal mines within just three years. Few measures were put in place to mitigate the negative impacts. This paper reports on a study in the Chongqing Municipality of south-west China, with the aims of identifying the economic impacts of the mine closure campaign and examining what factors permitted some localities to respond more successfully to the resulting economic challenges. Those areas with greater wealth and more diversified economies were able to absorb the shock of mine closure more effectively than poorer areas and those with less diversified economies. These latter groups either failed to respond to mine closure or reacted by increasing output from the remaining mines. In the successful cases, though the economy of the area as a whole was able to withstand the impact of the mine closure campaign, no evidence was found of any attempts to assist those in the local communities directly affected by mine closure.     

Predictors of Ips confusus Outbreaks During a Record Drought in Southwestern USA: Implications for Monitoring and Management

In many ecosystems the effects of disturbance can be cryptic and disturbance may vary in subtle spatiotemporal ways. For instance, we know that bark beetle outbreaks are more frequent in temperate forests during droughts; however, we have little idea about why they occur in some locations and not others. Understanding biotic and abiotic factors promoting bark beetle outbreaks can be critical to predicting and responding to pest outbreaks. Here we address the environmental factors which are associated with Ips confusus outbreaks during the 2002 widespread drought within the distribution range of pinyon pine woodlands in Arizona. We used univariate statistics to test if whether tree characteristics, other herbivores, stand properties, soil type, wind, and topography were associated with I. confusus outbreak, and logistic regression to create a predictive model for the outbreaks. We found that I. confusus attacks occur in low elevation stands on steeper slopes, where favorable winds for I. confusus dispersion occur. I. confusus select larger trees, in high density stands with understory shrubs that exhibit phenotypic traits characteristic of resistance to stem-boring moths. The model was highly accurate, and explained 95% of the variability in occurrence (98% of the absences and 95% of the presences). Accurate prediction of the impacts of disturbance allow us to anticipate, minimize or mitigate for and eventually counteract its effects, especially those affecting diversity and ecosystem function. Identification of outbreak risk areas can guide regional and national management towards the reduction of infestation risk and enhancing conservation of pinyon-juniper woodlands.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL IN EVALUATING POTENTIAL WASTE WATER DISPOSAL SITES IN THE MISSOURI OZARKS1

ABSTRACT: A number of criteria can be used in the selection of an area for the irrigation disposal of secondary treated waste water. The inherent capacity of the surface soil to retain, or at least detain, the various nutrient ions passing through the profile in the percolating waters becomes the prime consideration in regions with shallow water tables or in Karst areas such as the Missouri Ozarks where the risk of ground water supply contamination is high. A comprehensive study of the nutrient renovation potential of several soils was undertaken at a proposed effluent irrigation site along the Ozark National Scenic Riverways in south central Missouri. The surface soil hydrology was evaluated employing selected soil water parameters. Exchange equilibria studies determined the retention capacity for Ca and Mg while the concentrations of other selected ions were analyzed in the soil water to measure their retention time and net removal. The movement of a bromine tracer was monitored as an index of the renovation capacity of these soils for the more mobile anions such as nitrate. Neutron activation analysis proved to be a useful tool in the water quality analyses. All surface soil profiles demonstrated some degree of nutrient renovation for the various nutrients studied.     

An alternative role for economic instruments: Sustainable finance for environmental management

Economic instruments, such as effluent fees and tradable discharge permits (TDP), have often been suggested by economists as efficient or cost-effective means to control pollution. In recent years such instruments have received increasing attention due to their growing political acceptability. Still, their use in practice has been tentative. The interest in possible application of such instruments has led to a set of studies regarding their practical potential. These studies indicate that economic instruments require substantial government involvement, entailing high administration cost; require restrictions so as to prevent significant deterioration in receptor areas; and have ambivalent effects on innovation adoption. Consequently, the efficiency gains from such instruments may be smaller than potential gains identified in earlier studies. In addition, the distributional impacts of such instruments and their possible adverse effect on market contestability reduce their attractiveness in some cases. These findings raise the question: what is the desired role of economic instruments in addressing environmental concerns? In recent years the demand for environmental services has increased dramatically. Current legislation and studies indicate that desired environmental expenditures are likely to increase. At the same time environmental programs face increasing competition from other programs for a declining pool of general revenues. One outcome of these processes has been the search for alternative sources of funds for environmental programs. Furthermore, as the competition for general revenue funds increases, the allocation of such funds for environmental programs becomes less predictable. This may endanger many long-term environmental programs that require stable funding. This article suggests that economic instruments may prove one source of dedicated funds for many environmental goals. Consequently, studies of environmental-program financing as well as studies of economic instruments may well explore the possible role of economic instruments as financing tools. Some examples of the potential of such tools for estuary cleanup programs are discussed.     

Identification and quantification of the hydrological impacts of imperviousness in urban catchments: a review

Urbanisation produces numerous changes in the natural environments it replaces. The impacts include habitat fragmentation and changes to both the quality and quantity of the stormwater runoff, and result in changes to hydrological systems. This review integrates research in relatively diverse areas to examine how the impacts of urban imperviousness on hydrological systems can be quantified and modelled. It examines the nature of reported impacts of urbanisation on hydrological systems over four decades, including the effects of changes in imperviousness within catchments, and some inconsistencies in studies of the impacts of urbanisation. The distribution of imperviousness within urban areas is important in understanding the impacts of urbanisation and quantification requires detailed characterisation of urban areas. As a result most mapping of urban areas uses remote sensing techniques and this review examines a range of techniques using medium and high resolution imagery, including spectral unmixing. The third section examines the ways in which scientists and hydrological and environmental engineers model and quantify water flows in urban areas, the nature of hydrological models and methods for their calibration. The final section examines additional factors which influence the impact of impervious surfaces and some uncertainties that exist in current knowledge.     

广西凤山岩溶国家地质公园旅游扶贫体系探讨

国家地质公园的可持续发展与旅游扶贫成效紧密相关.凤山国家地质公园是资源优势突出和经济落后相矛盾的典型区域,其地质遗迹类型丰富、特征突出,地质遗迹价值珍贵,但其地理位置位于偏僻的国家级贫困县凤山县境内,交通可进入性差,经济条件欠发达.构建凤山国家地质公园旅游扶贫体系,包含运营、保护与支撑三大系统,有利于落实消除贫困与地质公园可持续发展的协调统一.     

Designing tools to track health and well-being in mining regions of India

The objective of this article is to illustrate the use of a framework to design a set of tools to assess progress towards improved well-being in a mining region. The framework uses an ecosystem approach to assess human well-being and is sensitive to the needs, concerns, and interests of at least the major stakeholders: government, company and community. The framework seeks to be useful to stakeholders and to be of policy relevance. The article presents the proposed framework with illustrations from a case study in Goa, India. Mining in Goa has had both positive and negative impacts on the well-being of local people. These impacts vary depending on the age of mining. In areas where mining is well established and active, the economic impacts are more positive. The social and environmental impacts are more negative in the regions where mining is new or is closing down. These characteristics generate their own set of issues of concern to stakeholders. Based on these issues, three types of tools to assess current well-being and progress towards improved well-being are suggested: (i) Indicators based on identified issues using the Pressure-State-Response (PSR) framework; (ii) A quality of life instrument, which can be developed either as an aggregate measure of well-being or in a more limited way to capture the satisfaction of the community with their living conditions; (iii) A regional income accounting framework to assess whether the mining region is able to continue functioning into the indefinite future without being forced into a decline through the degradation of its key natural, social, and human assets and resources. The article suggests that if these tools are used regularly, an information system will emerge that will, over time, provide markers of what mining is doing to the region and to the local communities.