PLANNERS AS A PUBLIC IN WATER RESOURCES PUBLIC PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS1

This paper suggests a number of benefits in identifying urban and regional planners as a public in public participation programs of water resources planning studies. A perspective on public participation is presented. Recent trends and developing concepts are identified: emphasis on the need to coordinate urban and regional planning activities with water resources planning, increasing system complexity, the goals and objectives orientation of planning, planning for multi-objectives, the evaluation of a broader range of alternatives, and the consideration of water alternatives as only one set of measures to further society's aspirations. One way to assist in capitalizing on these trends is to seek out participation of those in other planning efforts who are involved in planning but on a different level. Because of their intimate knowledge of an areas history, growth and development, political climate, local perceptions of needs and desires, and major problems and issues they are able to contribute a great deal of insight in making the water resources planning effort more responsive at the local level. The paper describes one of the first major efforts at working-level public-planner contact which was carried out as part of the Susquehanna River Basin Study. A regional survey team comprised of an engineer and an economist from a federal agency and a state water resources planner met informally with planners, city managers, and local planning commissions to discuss issues related to water resources and the growth and development of local areas. This effort while only part of the overall public participation program yielded a number of benefits and if expanded and refined would be a very useful experience in other studies.     

DEMAND PROJECTIONS CONSIDERING CONSERVATION1

ABSTRACT: Prediction of future water demands depends on the degree to which conservation effects can be anticipated. A model developed for the Corps of Engineers shows that choosing a numerical conservation target to be achieved is more meaningful and yields more predictable results than price or price elasticity manipulations. The method developed and then applied to the Kaneohe Bay region of Oahu considers the following determinants of demand: geographic distribution of the users, indoor and outdoor requirements, time - by year and month of the year, precipitation, historical unit usage rates, gross and irrigable acreage of land uses, price for water, elasticity of demand with respect to price, source of the water supply (local private supplies vs. agency supplies), and the percentage conservation savings anticipated in each future period in indoor and outdoor uses of water in each of 40 possible land uses. While developed for use in Hawaii, the model is applicable generally.     

城市环境总体规划中的布局问题研究——以北京市丰台区为例

城市环境总体规划是对城市中长期环境管理的综合安排,是环境保护基础性的规划,其核心问题在于规模、结构和布局,即从城市环境、资源与生态约束角度为社会经济发展规划、城市总体规划与土地利用规划提出限制(环境、资源与生态红线),从环境承载力与发展生态适宜性分区角度为城市发展规划提出发展适度规模、结构与布局。在城市"多规融合"的实践过程中,城市环境总体规划,作为政府综合决策的重要支撑之一,可以为其他的规划编制提供约束条件以及土地供给能力测算值,使得各规划间能够相互支撑、相互融合,因此有必要先行。本文以北京市丰台区环境总体规划为例,从布局角度出发,基于区域土地资源供给能力对丰台区进行土地生态适宜性评价,并得到土地生态适宜性区划图,从而提出丰台区城市总体规划与土地利用规划的限制条件,为城市环境总体规划先行提供科学依据。     

Quantification of potable water savings by residential water conservation and reuse - A case study

To demonstrate the benefits of water conservation at the household level in regional Victoria in Australia, a family house “Sharland Oasis” was designed and built according to an ecologically sustainable design for improved water and energy efficiency. This study has demonstrated that the combined use of alternative water supplies together with water efficient appliances can save up to 77% of total potable water use compared to the average 1990s household water use in the same region considering the location and differing in water use approach. The use of rainwater inside the home alone saved up to 40% of potable water use. In addition to the water savings, there is a significant wastewater discharge saving achieved through the use of water conservation strategies and greywater reuse. A community survey undertaken in regional Victoria revealed that community receptivity for reusing greywater is highest for uses, such as watering gardens and flushing toilets; but it progressively decreased with increasing personal contact with greywater. Positive perception of greywater reuse needs to be encouraged through programs targeted at developing resources, skills and motivation for new water reuse practices and technologies, across a diverse range of social groups.     

The impact of small farm reservoirs on urban water supplies in Botswana

In eastern Botswana there are many small farm reservoirs within the catchments of the major water supply reservoirs, and there is increasing demand for more small reservoirs. The increasing development of farm reservoirs has an impact on the availability of water from the major reservoirs, which supply urban and industrial users, and this creates a conflict between the needs of the rural water users and the urban and industrial users. This paper describes a model which has been developed to allow the effects of the existing small reservoirs and the possible impacts of future proposed ones on the water resources of the major reservoirs to be quantified. The model provides a planning tool, enabling guidelines for future small reservoir development to be determined. The model is a general one which could also be calibrated and applied in other areas with a broadly similar climate. The results of a series of model runs indicate the rate of decline of runoff and yield from the major reservoirs as the total capacity of small reservoirs within the catchment increases. It also shows how this decline is affected by secondary factors such as the relative location of the small reservoirs within the catchment, the typical size of small reservoirs and the type of use to which they are put. The results clearly indicate the adverse effect which uncontrolled development of farm reservoirs would have on the water supplies from the major reservoirs. By quantifying these effects, planners have some of the necessary information to determine the optimum balance between development of small-scale rural water supplies and large-scale urban supplies .     

Beijing's Water Resources: Challenges and Solutions

Beijing's local water resources have been overexploited and the ecological and environmental pressures exceed the carrying capacity of this densely populated megacity. This article examines the current status of Beijing's water resources with respect to its industrial, residential, and eco‐environmental water usage and the challenges it may face in the near future. The article describes the context of water uses, the steps taken by Beijing to alleviate the water shortage problems, and challenges to Beijing's abilities to meet its urgent and future water needs. A multipronged strategy is proposed that aims at both the present problems and the anticipated future challenges. In particular, engineering and institutional approaches for Beijing's successful transition from overexploitation to sustainable utilization of water resources are explained. Actions include reasonable water utilization, water conservation, reclaimed wastewater, and importing water from neighboring areas. We conclude that Beijing must take additional steps in water resource management to ensure its sustainable development that involves continued urbanization sprawls and population growth. Future water resource management strategies should focus on strengthening water demand management through water conservation, efficient interbasin water transfers, use of nontraditional water resources, strategically reserving water supply, and promoting rehabilitation of the eco‐environments.     

The Palestinian water crisis

The Middle East is renowned as a water-scarce region. The severity of the problem in Palestine is not a result of climatic misfortune, however, but of regional water allocation and distribution of these resources, especially between Palestinians and Israelis. Palestinian water supplies are currently insufficient to satisfy demand, and are increasingly degraded. Projected increases in regional population and demand are high, making it urgent to come to grips with the water shortage. Any attempt at resolution should consider three related areas within a single integrated water management formula. First, attempts must be made to resolve allocation disputes, governed by principles of international water law; second, conservation and appropriate utilization of water must be emphasized; and third, supplies must be enhanced, either through water import or other means. Only if the water shortage is analysed in an integrated manner will it be possible to ensure full resolution of the Palestinian-Israeli hydropolitical dispute .     

Impacts of Multiple Stresses on Water Demand and Supply Across the Southeastern United States1

Abstract: Assessment of long‐term impacts of projected changes in climate, population, and land use and land cover on regional water resource is critical to the sustainable development of the southeastern United States. The objective of this study was to fully budget annual water availability for water supply (precipitation ? evapotranspiration + groundwater supply + return flow) and demand from commercial, domestic, industrial, irrigation, livestock, mining, and thermoelectric uses. The Water Supply Stress Index and Water Supply Stress Index Ratio were developed to evaluate water stress conditions over time and across the 666 eight‐digit Hydrologic Unit Code basins in the 13 southeastern states. Predictions from two Global Circulation Models (CGC1 and HadCM2Sul), one land use change model, and one human population model, were integrated to project future water supply stress in 2020. We found that population increase greatly stressed water supply in metropolitan areas located in the Piedmont region and Florida. Predicted land use and land cover changes will have little effect on water quantity and water supply‐water demand relationship. In contrast, climate changes had the most pronounced effects on regional water supply and demand, especially in western Texas where water stress was historically highest in the study region. The simulation system developed by this study is useful for water resource planners to address water shortage problems such as those experienced during 2007 in the study region. Future studies should focus on refining the water supply term to include flow exchanges between watersheds and constraints of water quality and environmental flows to water availability for human use.     

A LAND-USE POLICY BASED ON WATER SUPPLY1

ABSTRACT: Santa Fe Country, New Mexico, has adopted a land-use policy in which zoning densities provide a balance between the water use on a parcel of land and the water supply available bencath that land. In two of four mapped hydrologic zones, ground water in storage will be allowed to be mined to exhaustion in 100 years (40 years in urban areas). Elsewhere, the policy is for a steady state with use balanced by recharge. Equations to determine storage or recharge can be solved using site specific data or regional estimates of hydrologic conditions. Substantial reductions in the lot size requirements are allowed if water conservation convenants are adopted. Public acceptance indicates that the policy successfully integrates technical and political concerns. It is simple to administer, yet reflects widely expressed public goals and values.     

Modeling the relationship between land use and surface water quality

It is widely known that watershed hydrology is dependent on many factors, including land use, climate, and soil conditions. But the relative impacts of different types of land use on the surface water are yet to be ascertained and quantified. This research attempted to use a comprehensive approach to examine the hydrologic effects of land use at both a regional and a local scale. Statistical and spatial analyses were employed to examine the statistical and spatial relationships of land use and the flow and water quality in receiving waters on a regional scale in the State of Ohio. Besides, a widely accepted watershed-based water quality assessment tool, the Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS), was adopted to model the plausible effects of land use on water quality in a local watershed in the East Fork Little Miami River Basin. The results from the statistical analyses revealed that there was a significant relationship between land use and in-stream water quality, especially for nitrogen, phosphorus and Fecal coliform. The geographic information systems (GIS) spatial analyses identified the watersheds that have high levels of contaminants and percentages of agricultural and urban lands. Furthermore, the hydrologic and water quality modeling showed that agricultural and impervious urban lands produced a much higher level of nitrogen and phosphorus than other land surfaces. From this research, it seems that the approach adopted in this study is comprehensive, covering both the regional and local scales. It also reveals that BASINS is a very useful and reliable tool, capable of characterizing the flow and water quality conditions for the study area under different watershed scales. With little modification, these models should be able to adapt to other watersheds or to simulate other contaminants. They also can be used to study the plausible impacts of global environmental change. In addition, the information on the hydrologic effects of land use is very useful. It can provide guidelines not only for resource managers in restoring our aquatic ecosystems, but also for local planners in devising viable and ecologically-sound watershed development plans, as well as for policy makers in evaluating alternate land management decisions.     

A LINEAR ANALYSIS OF AN URBAN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM1

The use of linear programming as a planning tool for determining the optimal long-range development of an urban water supply system was explored. A stochastic trace of water demand was synthesized and used as an input to the model. This permitted evaluating the feasibility of imposing demand restrictions as an effective cost reduction mechanism. The City of Lincoln, Nebraska, was used as the urban model. The fundamental problem was to allocate limited water supplies from several sources to an urban load center to minimize costs and comply with system constraints. The study period covered twenty years, and findings indicate the planning direction for stage development during this period. Sensitivity analyses were performed on cost coefficients and demands. Thirteen sources were included in the initial computations. Conclusions were that linear programming and generated demand traces are useful tools for both short- and long-term urban water supply planning. Lowering peak demands results in long-range development of fewer sources of supply and more economic and efficient use of the supplies developed.     

Whose land? Whose water? Water rights,equity and justice in a peri-urban context

Based on research in peri-urban areas, this paper explores questions of water justice in the context of emerging global cities. With the growth of large cities, authorities focus on meeting their water needs through infrastructure expansion and supply augmentation. The changing water needs and priorities of peri-urban locations, which provide land and water for urban expansion, receive scant attention. This paper looks at changing patterns of water use between rural and urban uses, based on research in peri-urban Gurgaon, an emerging outsourcing and recreation hub of North West India. It describes the diversity of ways in which peri-urban residents lose access to water as the city expands. These processes raise important questions about water justice, about the politics of urban expansion, and the implicit biases about whom these cities are meant for.     

ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF WATER AMONG REGIONAL ECONOMIC SECTORS USING THE 1972 NATIONAL INTERINDUSTRY FORMAT1

ABSTRACT: Recent growth in irrigated agriculture and metropolitan areas of the Western United States suggests that if growth continues, there will be a potential shortage in future water resources. Compound the expansion of agriculture and municipal demands with possible enaction of instream flow requirements, a method to allocate water among alternative economic sectors in the West is needed. In this study, an interindustry-linear programming model based on the 1972 national model format is used to allocate scarce water supplies among competing regional economic sectors. The shadow price of water and the sectorial value of water at different availabilities for each competing sector is derived. Also, economic sectors are ranked by value of water at different water availabilities.     

The long iron line: Water resources development at the United States Military Academy,West Point (1802–1943)

Comprehensive analyses of long-term region-specific water resources developments could offer new insights for contemporary water resources planners and decision makers. The objective of this work was to analyze water supply development at the United States Military Academy (USMA) during the 19th and early 20th Centuries through the lens of selected modern water resources planning and management practices. Analysis of water usage, population, and technological growth revealed that changes in technology had a greater influence on total water withdrawals than an increase in population. The USMA water supply system evolved incrementally over much of the 141-year study period and failure to adequately recognize shortcomings in water supply options resulted in several suboptimal decisions. Communications and enhanced stakeholder participation might have resulted in alternative decisions.     

Individualized water source as an indicator of attitudes about water management and conservation in humid regions

Public perceptions about water quantity and water as a common pool resource are understudied in humid regions. As water demand increases, the need to more closely manage water, even in humid areas, will increase, requiring better understanding how people perceive their water supply, how they view paying for water conservation and how water user characteristics influence attitudes. A survey finds correlations between utilizing an individual water source (e.g. well or spring) and attitudes toward water management and conservation. Compared to respondents with a shared water source, those with an individual source believe they are segregated from regional water concerns. They are less willing to pay for water management or conservation measures and less supportive of any government intervention in water management. These results suggest that planners and water managers may face resistance to conservation policies or any policy based on the idea of water as a common pool resource.     

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN THE MIDDLE EAST1

ABSTRACT: Water is, and most likely will continue to be, one of the main concerns and potential causes of instability in the Middle East (ME). The contribution of the existing renewable water resources is limited and can not fulfill the long-term projected gap between water supply and demand for most of the countries in the ME. An integrated regional approach for fulfilling this gap was preferred. A regional institutional framework was proposed for the implementation of this integrated regional approach and consists of a regional water board operating through three units for technical, implementation, and management aspects of project and activities. An analysis of the regional water supply and demand development, the design and policy making of the proposed institution, technology and water markets, cooperation, actors and beneficiaries, finances, and expected obstacles and constraints to the establishment and sustainable operation of the proposed institution are included.     

EFFECTS OF INTERBASIN TRANSFERS UPON WATER MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES IN CENTRAL UTAH1

ABSTRACT. Most of Utah's rapid population and industrial expansion is taking place along the western base of the Wasatch Mountains, with consequent increases in water demand. As a part of Utah's “Developing a State Water Plan,” a foundation investigation of the Utah Lake drainage area, which is at the Southern end of the Wasatch Front, was completed which delineated the quantity and quality of the water resources, present water uses, and opportunities for further water conservation. To prepare water budgets, land use data was collected to delineate all areas using water in excess of normal precipitation, which includes agricultural croplands, phreatophytes, open water surfaces, industrial areas, and urban areas. The water budgets were prepared for the time base 1931-1960, but adjusted to physical conditions existing in 1960. The Initial Phase of the Bonneville Unit of the Central Utah Project is presently under construction, with costs expected to exceed 300 million dollars. The principal feature of this project is the exportation of waters from the Colorado River Basin into the Utah Lake drainage area (Great Basin). This importation provides a large number of alternatives for allocation, reallocation of present supplies, and exportation. The possible effects of the Central Utah Project for realizing some of the above alternatives is delineated. Fortunately, the features of this project allow a wide latitude for water management in Utah, thereby facilitating its corporation into a “State Water Plan.”     

Relative Value of Water for Hydropower and Municipal Supply in Southeastern Reservoirs

Population growth in the Southeast has driven withdrawals for municipal water beyond the limits of local supplies. With few options left for development of virgin sources, a number of urban areas are looking toward demand management and additional supplies by reallocating storage in reservoirs that were built primarily or in part for hydropower. Hydropower has become a lesser part of the mix of energy sources, and the question arises as to value of water for that purpose relative to its value for municipal use. Three cases are used to examine the issue. Effects of withdrawal for municipal water supply on output of electric energy are estimated. Benefits of foregone energy are evaluated using the least cost alternative for replacement, and benefits for municipal water are estimated using costs for development of new sources. Benefits for use as municipal water are found to be considerably higher than benefits for hydroelectric energy at existing prices, even higher than the least cost alternative for replacement. Given the spatial distribution of the cases, that finding would appear to hold in general across the region.     

REGIONAL WATER SUPPLY PLANNING STUDY FOR NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS1

ABSTRACT: The development of a regional water supply system for the six-county area of Northeastern Illinois is presented in this paper, including: 1) the establishment of regional water supply technical planning policies; 2) the development and utilization of a regional water supply computer model to identify the principal and secondary sources of water supply for each entity in the study area, based on an apparent cost-effective source analysis; and 3) utilization of the study results to develop for the year 2010 a suggested preliminary regional water supply system. Using the findings from task 2 above, a proposed plan for overall Lake Michigan water use through the year 2010 was also developed. The effects of the proposed regional water supply system on future water levels in the deep aquifer were also discussed.     

A SURVEY OF STATE WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMS IN THE U.S.1

ABSTRACT: Adequate water supplies are critical to the maintenance of a community's health and economic well-being. Across the nation communities are struggling to meet an expanding demand for water from municipal, industrial, agricultural, recreation, water quality, and power generation users. As the demand grows and communities actively compete with one another for a limited water supply, states are being called upon to help solve the problem. One possible solution that is being used in many areas is the development and implementation of a water conservation program to stretch the limited supply as far as possible. using a mailed survey, state water conservation programs and some of the characteristics of the different programs were documented. Responses to the nationwide survey were obtained from all 50 states. The specific water conservation program elements on which information was received from the survey included laws and restricted use, community assistance, education, research, and other services. Recommendations for states developing or considering the development of a water conservation program are outlined.