Multiple scales of diamond mining in Akwatia,Ghana: addressing environmental and human development impact

Ghana is the second largest producer of gold in sub-Saharan Africa, and has experienced a significant increase in national mining production over the last two decades. Between 1983 and 1998, the mining industry brought approximately US $4 billion in foreign direct investment to Ghana. While large-scale gold mining has seen a significant increase, artisanal gold and diamond mining product have grown exponentially. While much research has been conducted on gold mining in Ghana, there is relatively little research on the environmental and human development consequences of diamond mining in the country. Unlike other West African countries such as Sierra Leonne and Liberia, small-scale diamond mining in Ghana has not been linked to conflict but its role in development has also been relatively modest. This paper examines large and small-scale mining in Ghana's largest diamond mining town, Akwatia, and their relative impact on environmental degradation, health, and the livelihood of artisanal miners. We conclude that while an increase in artisanal diamond mining has been a means of employement and income-generation for small-scale miners, there are some human development challenges, related to environmental burden from land degradation and health. GCD is an ailing mining company in Ghana, in desperate need of an injection of capital to keep the mine alive, but botched bidding has slowed the process of de-regulating the company. We also conclude that the de-regulation of GCD may lead to a relatively reduced environmental burden in Akwatia and more revenue for the GCD to invest in the human development needs of communities in the town.     

Small-scale mining in Ghana: The government and the galamsey

This paper argues that the current formalization system for small-scale gold miners in Ghana has been undermined and the small-scale mining laws no longer capture the reality of the sector’s activities. The paper will examine the small-scale mining system and shows that registered and unregistered actors operate not only in parallel but are actually intertwined and highly dependent on one another. The paper shows that the perceived dichotomy of formal and informal actors in the sector does not actually exist. The sector has instead evolved into a highly intertwined group of semi-formal sectors operating with varying degrees of legal registrations. The paper concludes that political leniency and law enforcement corruption has resulted in a booming small-scale gold system under poor government control. The paper recommends that politicians move to enact reforms to regularize the small-scale mining sector and curtail ubiquitous environmental and occupational safety problems. Anti-corruption initiatives and law enforcement reforms are the most urgent. However, reforming the laws is also necessary to capture and regulate the technological innovations the sector is currently using.     

Criminalization of “galamsey” and livelihoods in Ghana: Limits and consequences

The fact that the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector in Ghana is driven largely by poverty means that the sector is a major source of livelihood for people in mining communities across the country. However, given the various social and environmental problems associated with the ASM sector, there is now an emerging consensus that the formalization of the sector would not only allow for these associated problems to be addressed but also ensures that the sector contributes to sustainable development and safeguard the livelihood of local communities. While a large body of extant literature has examined the challenges and opportunities facing the process of formalization, the question of the criminalization of the sector and its consequences for local livelihood has received only limited attention. Drawing from primary data collected during fieldwork in Ghana, this study examined the livelihood implications of the ban on galamsey in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality in South-Western Ghana from the perspectives of local communities and other key stakeholders. The study reveals that the ban on galamsey has imposed significant socio-economic hardships on the people and appears to be entrenching poverty rather than sustainable development. The study considers the theoretical and practical implications of the findings for sustainable livelihood enhancement in developing countries.     

Promoting sustainable development in Ghanaian small-scale gold mining operations

This paper provides an overview of the initiatives that have been undertaken by the Ghanaian government to promote more sustainable development in resident small-scale gold mining operations, and recommends a series of strategies for perpetuating a pattern of continued improvement. Since the passing of the Small Scale Gold Mining Law (PNDCL 218) in 1989, which effectively legalized small-scale gold mining as an industry in Ghana, the government, in particular, the Minerals Commission, has made a concerted effort to regularize operations, and to provide technical and financial support to miners. Under the auspices of the German non-profit Gesellschaft Technishe Zusannebarbeit (GTZ), a small-scale gold mining registration system has been implemented, district support centres for small miners have been constructed and the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC) has been created, which purchases products from small-scale miners at near-market prices. Careful analysis reveals, however, that these efforts have collectively only had a marginal impact, and that the industry is still in dire need of aid. Specifically, to perpetuate further a pattern of improved sustainability--improvements in both the socio-economic and environmental arenas--additional technical and financial support must be provided, and sound environmental management practices implemented. The Minerals Commission has been burdened with these tasks and challenges but because it is largely understaffed, it is highly unlikely that it will be able to facilitate sufficient improvement in the sector on its own. Nevertheless, marked improvements can be achieved if: (1) avenues for technological dissemination are created and improved; (2) research partnerships are forged with local universities; (3) experienced consultation is hired when needed; and (4) other governmental agencies, namely the Mines Department, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Geological Survey, provide the Minerals Commission assistance with prospecting, monitoring, regulation and environmental auditing activities.     

The case of artisanal mining in Bolivia: Local participatory development and mining investment opportunities

Despite the buoyant expansion of Latin America's mining sector, the small-scale mining sub-sector remains marginalized. For many countries with small-scale mining resources, the way forward to sustainable mining development is not clear. Activities, in far too many cases, have led to environmental damage, social inequity and political violence among mining communities. This article, through a case study of the Bolivian Altiplano, seeks to advance the understanding of the conditions that drive mining communities into the chain of events of impoverishment associated with environmental damage. It also examines the opportunities for sustainable human development among these communities. In Bolivia's mining sector, social inequity is pervasive and holds the mineral resources captive. This situation is further aggravated by the fact that solutions, in the short term, are uncertain. Unresolved social inequity compromises foreign direct investments since social considerations are becoming increasingly important to mining corporations when deciding whether to invest. This article outlines a preliminary strategy to move forward on social inequity. The strategy revolves mainly around implementing alternative sustainable livelihoods with the participation of the government (central and local), the private sector, NGOs and donors as facilitators and partners. Its aim is to reduce the number of families eking out a living from artisanal mining in order to enhance the viability of small-scale mining. It is hoped that, as social inequity decreases throughout the sector, the increased stability will enable stakeholders to consider foreign direct investments within the framework of the country's sustainable human development goals.     

Global trends in gold mining: Towards quantifying environmental and resource sustainability

In recent years, due to public concern over perceived and actual environmental impacts, the global mining industry has been moving towards a more sustainable framework. For gold mining, there are a number of fundamental issues with regard to assessing sustainability. Commonly perceived as a finite and non-renewable resource, long-term gold production trends include declining ore grades and increasing solid wastes (tailings, waste rock) and open cut mining. Conversely, core sustainability issues include water, energy and chemical consumption and pollutant emissions—also known as ‘resource intensity’. It is important to recognise the links between gold production trends and resource intensity, as this is critical for understanding future sustainability challenges. This paper links data sets on historic gold mining production trends with emerging sustainability reporting to estimate resource intensity, demonstrating the sensitivity of ore grade for gold production and sustainability. Final judgement of the sustainability of gold mining must take account of the sensitivity of the ore grade in the resource intensity of gold production. This has implications for environmental policy and sustainability reporting in the gold mining sector.     

Technology,managerial, and policy initiatives for improving environmental performance in small-scale gold mining industry

This paper reviews a series of strategies for improving environmental performance in the small-scale gold mining industry. Although conditions vary regionally, few regulations and policies exist specifically for small-scale gold mining activity. Furthermore, because environmental awareness is low in most developing countries, sites typically feature rudimentary technologies and poor management practices. A combination of policy-, managerial- and technology-related initiatives is needed to facilitate environmental improvement in the industry. Following a broad overview of these initiatives, a recommended strategy is put forth for governments keen on improving the environmental conditions of resident small-scale gold mines.     

Perspectives on female participation in artisanal and small-scale mining: A case study of Birim North District of Ghana

This article critically examines the issue of growing female participation in the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector, particularly within its illegal segment, drawing upon experiences from Birim North District in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Although an estimated 50% of those employed in ASM are women, few researchers have investigated what roles women play in the sector, or how their participation contributes to rural development. The paper aims to examine the causes of female participation in the ASM sector and the impact of this type of employment on women's income, health and families. An analysis of collected data suggests that there is a growing need for policies to address female employment in ASM and, more generally, rural employment. The analysis demonstrates the utility of gender mainstreaming in the small-scale mining formalisation process, as well as the need to promote other viable employment opportunities for the benefit of women residing in rural areas.     

The public good dilemma of a non-renewable common resource: A look at the facts of artisanal gold mining

Millions of people worldwide are involved in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. Many of them live in conditions of poverty and insalubrities due to the mercury amalgamation of gold and the application of other rudimentary techniques. In spite of this, the sector has been nearly overlooked by resource economists. In this paper we analyze the sector based on a survey of the existing literature. We find some commonalities of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in different countries of the developing world as follows: low levels of mechanization and technology, labor intensiveness, low awareness of environmental degradation, poor training, high transience among some miners, and lack of financial savings. Moreover, with these commonalities in mind, we present some topics and challenges for a research agenda in the field of environmental, ecological, and development economics.     

Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries

This article examines both the positive and negative socio-economic impacts of small-scale mining in developing countries, and outlines some key measures for improving sustainability in the sector. It is important to clarify that, in spite of experiencing its share of environmental- and health-related problems that adversely impact human quality-of-life, small-scale mining plays a pivotal role in alleviating poverty in the developing world, and contributes significantly to national revenues and foreign exchange earnings. Though these important socio-economic contributions make small-scale mining an indispensable economic activity, there is an obvious need for improved sustainability in the industry, more specifically, for operations to resolve pressing problems, many of which have wide-ranging impacts. However, because most small-scale mines are low-tech and employ poorly trained uneducated people, it is difficult for the sector to improve on its own. Thus, governments and regional international bodies must play an expanded role in bridging critical information, techno-logic and economic gaps. It is concluded that governments and regional organizations could accomplish much in the way of improved sustainability in the small-scale mining industry by: (1) legalizing small-scale mining and implementing sector-specific legislation; (2) contributing to community development and providing increased economic support; and (3) providing training and educational assistance, and playing an expanded role in the dissemination and transfer of important technologies.     

Small–scale mining in South Africa: Past, present and future

Mining is an important part of the South African economy and has been the driver of much of the economic development of the country. However, the small–scale mining subsector still has to realise its full potential. A small–scale mine has been defined as a mining activity employing less than 50 people and with an annual turnover of less than 7.5 million Rand and includes artisanal mines. Small–scale miners are involved in many commodities but there appears to be a bias towards gold, diamonds and quarrying for construction materials, including brickclays. Small–scale mining is regulated by the same legislation (i.e., for the environment, labour, mineral rights, exploration and mining permitting, and skills development) as large–scale mining, though compliance is low, particularly where artisanal mining in concerned. The effective participation of small–scale miners in the mining sector is hampered by their lack of skills, i.e., technical, business and management, and their limited access to mineral deposits, capital and markets. Some of these hindrances have been inherited from the imbalances of the colonial and apartheid eras and continue to act as barriers, making entrance to the industry difficult. For those who have entered the industry out of desperation, as is the case with most artisanal miners, their activities result in negative impacts evident in the inefficient, unsafe and environmentally unfriendly operations. With the advent of the new political dispensation in South Africa, a new era is dawning for the country’s small–scale mining subsector. This has resulted in a change of attitude and new government policies which have led to special programmes being put in place to promote the subsector. Intervention strategies for the support of small–scale mining (some of which are already in operation) include programmes for kickstarting mineral beneficiation and value–addition projects, development of appropriate technologies and skills and technology transfer. Proponents of small–scale mining see a well–regulated industry as being the cornerstone of future rural economic development, particularly for previously disadvantaged communities in the poverty nodes.     

The stone forum: Implementing a consensus building methodology to address impacts associated with small mining and quarry operations

Small-scale mining, including quarry operations, continues to play an important social and economic role in hundreds of communities throughout Brazil. Often operating outside the formal economy, conflicts between the owners of small-scale mining operations, the mineworkers, various government agencies, and other stakeholders have contributed to the progressive degradation of the environment, poor health and safety standards, and low productivity. The Centre for Mineral Technology (CETEM) of Brazil is implementing a consensus building methodology in order to produce dimension stone by small-scale miners on a more sustainable basis in the Pádua region, located in the northwest of the State of Rio de Janeiro. The approach being used by CETEM is based on its own experience in working with gold prospectors in the Amazon, and lessons and experiences learned from Canadian officials and industry representatives. The lessons and insights gained from this project may prove to be useful to those involved in addressing similar problems elsewhere in Brazil, South America and around the world.     

Influence of land tenure practices on artisanal mining activity in Ghana

This paper examines the issue of land tenure and how it influences artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activity in Ghana. Over the past few decades, attempts by governments in sub-Saharan Africa to regulate or formalize ASM as a result of the sector's increasing socio-economic and environmental importance have largely been unsuccessful. Even though mining laws have tended to vest all minerals in the state, increasing evidence suggests that mineral-rich lands for artisanal mining continue to be frequently traded between local landowners and miners or interested groups outside the official legal regime. This development, i.e. land trading for artisanal mining, contributes significantly towards proliferation of illegal ASM activity and hence potentially challenges attempts by governments and development partners to formalise the sector.     

Risk attitudes and mitigation among gold miners and others in the Suriname rainforest

This article analyses the question: do attitudes towards risk influence participation in small‐scale gold mining, a hazardous activity that generates uncertain income? This question is examined by measuring and comparing the risk attitudes of gold miners and non‐mining community members in the rainforest of Suriname, South America. The author presents a multivariate model to predict the duration of work in mining areas as a function of risk tolerance, age, education, and household demographics. The results suggest that a greater tolerance to risk increases the duration of a person's mining career. However, attitudes explain only a fraction of the variation in occupational choices. Qualitative data suggest that these choices are primarily shaped by local barriers to human capital development and by national economic volatility. Given their marginal position in society and the multitude of mining risk mitigation strategies, it is questionable whether gold mining exposes Suriname forest peoples to greater risks than other subsistence alternatives. The author argues that sensitivity to local historical and cultural conditions would improve the efficiency of policies aimed at developing a more sustainable mining industry. By zooming in on the daily lives of miners, anthropology can complement macro‐scale analyses and contribute to policy interventions in the small‐scale mining sector.     

Linkages in Ghana's gold mining industry: Challenging the enclave thesis

By 2009, Ghana was the second-ranked African producer after South Africa, and had become the world's ninth largest producer of gold, at some 3.8% of global production, up from 2.6% five years earlier. Gold production volumes and revenues rose significantly over the decade from 2000. Yet gold mining tends to be perceived negatively in Ghana, and is seen as providing far less than it should in terms of public revenue, employment, skills development and spillovers, and localised economic development. Gold mining is often depicted as having an enclave status, disconnected and isolated from the rest of the economy. In contrast, the research findings here demonstrate that after a period of strong investment and growth, gold mining can no longer be viewed as an enclave activity: it is in fact more deeply linked into the Ghanaian economy than hitherto understood, through a set of as yet under-researched but promising economic linkages, notably backward linkages, which can potentially be strengthened by policy and support measures.     

Mercury: An agent of poverty in Ghana's small-scale gold-mining sector?

There is consensus worldwide that the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector is comprised of individuals who are trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty, lacking the necessary financial and technological means to improve their standards of living. Minimal work, however, has been undertaken to identify the very factors behind miners’ plight, which inevitably vary from country to country. This paper uses a case study of Ghana to argue that an increased dependence upon mercury for amalgamation in artisanal gold-mining communities is one such—albeit overlooked—“agent of poverty”. There is mounting empirical evidence which suggests that dealings with the monoponistic middlemen who supply mercury, purchases of costly medicines to remedy ailments caused by mercury poisoning, and a lack of appropriate safeguards and alternatives to amalgamation, are preventing gold miners from improving their practices and livelihoods. The solution to the problem lies in breaking this cycle of dependency, which can be achieved by providing miners with robust support services, mercury-free technologies and education.     

Government environmental regulations and implementation in the mining sector

The paper describes the evolution of interest in the environment, especially in relation to the mining industry. The author uses detailed examples from Ghana and other developing countries as well as from the European Union/Community. The paper describes trends leading to the adoption of the concept of sustainable development by most of the countries of the world at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio, June 1992).     

Mining development in sub-Saharan Africa

Mineral production from sub-Saharan Africa is an important contributor to the economy at the country, regional and global levels. As an example, in relation to global production, the region provides 40% of diamonds, 20% of bauxite and 20% of rutile. However, with two or three notable exceptions, the region's share of mineral production has been declining compared to that of other regions. Whereas in some cases ore reserve depletion has been a factor, the most important underlying cause has been the absence of an enabling environment to attract high-risk exploration investment and to support private sector mining development. There has also been insufficient re-investment by the region's state dominated mining enterprises. Overall, growth is unlikely to occur unless an enabling environment is created to secure and maintain the appropriate levels of investment. The World Bank has recently initiated an African Mining Policy Study with the objective of recognizing and then introducing required adjustment processes into the region's mining industry.     

Examining the spatial incongruity between mining sector and beekeeping activities

The seminal work of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination, and food production, informed scientific studies on the understudied impacts of mining on agriculture sub-sectors. This paper assesses the potential impacts of mining activities on beekeeping as an agricultural sub-sector, and the flow-on effects on associated economic values and enterprises to enhance sustainable development. A case study is conducted in the emerging northwest gold mining region of Ghana. The Location Quotient (LQ) and Location Association (La) models are used to explore the economic significance of beekeeping, its spatial links with tree habitats, and mining activities. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used to analyze the spatial interactions between concessions, trees, and beekeeping. The paper finds that districts with LQ < 1 in beekeeping also record LQ > 1 in mining, and La < 50 between beekeeping and mining. The findings are useful for stakeholder decision-making toward harnessing and leveraging the prospects of mining on integrated rural and sustainable development.     

The illegal trading of high unit value minerals in developing countries

Attracted by the high unit value and low barriers to entry in terms of capital requirements, technology, infrastructure, minimum reserves and implementation time, the artisanal and small-scale mining of high unit value minerals, such as gemstones, diamonds and gold, has grown to significant proportions in developing countries. This is manifested by the value of output and large numbers of miners engaged in this activity. Despite the expansion of the subsector, its national economic role in many developing countries has largely been disappointing, primarily due to high levels of illegal trading activity. The objectives of this paper are to identify major factors responsible for the declaration problem. The economic impact of such activities is pointed out. To conclude the discussion, options are presented that provide a basis for eliminating illegal marketing practices and thereby strengthening the economic role of the subsector in meeting national development objectives of developing countries .