Best‐practice recommendations for estimating interaction effects using moderated multiple regression

An interaction effect indicates that a relationship is contingent upon the values of another (moderator) variable. Thus, interaction effects describe conditions under which relationships change in strength and/or direction. Understanding interaction effects is essential for the advancement of the organizational sciences because they highlight a theory's boundary conditions. We describe procedures for estimating and interpreting interaction effects using moderated multiple regression (MMR). We distill the technical literature for a general readership of organizational science researchers and include specific best‐practice recommendations regarding actions researchers can take before and after data collection to improve the accuracy of MMR‐based conclusions regarding interaction effects. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships between psychological climate perceptions and work outcomes: a meta‐analytic review

In this study, meta‐analytic procedures were used to examine the relationships between individual‐level (psychological) climate perceptions and work outcomes such as employee attitudes, psychological well‐being, motivation, and performance. Our review of the literature generated 121 independent samples in which climate perceptions were measured and analyzed at the individual level. These studies document considerable confusion regarding the constructs of psychological climate, organizational climate, and organizational culture and reveal a need for researchers to use terminology that is consistent with their level of measurement, theory, and analysis. Our meta‐analytic findings indicate that psychological climate, operationalized as individuals' perceptions of their work environment, does have significant relationships with individuals' work attitudes, motivation, and performance. Structural equation modeling analyses of the meta‐analytic correlation matrix indicated that the relationships of psychological climate with employee motivation and performance are fully mediated by employees' work attitudes. We also found that the James and James ( 1989 ) PC_g model could be extended to predict the impact of work environment perceptions on employee attitudes, motivation, and performance. Despite the number of published individual‐level climate studies that we found, there is a need for more research using standardized measures so as to enable analyses of the organizational and contextual factors that might moderate the effects of psychological climate perceptions. Finally, we argue for a molar theory of psychological climate that is rooted in the psychological processes by which individuals make meaning or their work experiences. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pygmalion in work organizations: a meta‐analysis

The Pygmalion effect, a type of self‐fulfilling prophecy, has been demonstrated in educational settings with empirical studies, qualitative reviews and meta‐analyses. It has also been studied in organizational settings. This meta‐analysis provides a review of the Pygmalion literature, an analysis of findings to date, and a deeper look into the nature of the effect. The present analysis of 13 effect sizes revealed an overall d for the Pygmalion effect in work organizations of 0.81. Moderator analyses revealed stronger effects when the initial level of performance was low and when the experiment took place in a military rather than a business setting. Implications of these findings are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A meta‐analytic comparison of self‐reported and other‐reported organizational citizenship behavior

Given the common use of self‐ratings and other‐ratings (e.g., supervisor or coworker) of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), the purpose of this meta‐analysis was to evaluate the extent to which these rating sources provide comparable information. The current study's results provided three important lines of evidence supporting the use and construct‐related validity of self‐rated OCB. The meta‐analysis of mean differences demonstrated that the mean difference in OCB ratings is actually quite small between self‐ and other‐raters. Importantly, the difference between self‐ and other‐raters was influenced by neither the response scale (i.e., agreement vs. frequency) nor the use of antithetical/reverse‐worded items on OCB scales. The meta‐analysis of correlations showed that self‐ and other‐ratings are moderately correlated but that self–other convergence is higher when antithetical items are not used and when agreement response scales are used. In addition, self‐ratings and supervisor‐ratings showed significantly more convergence than self‐ratings and coworker‐ratings. Finally, an evaluation of self‐rated and other‐rated OCB nomological networks showed that although self‐rated and other‐rated OCBs have similar patterns of relationships with common correlates, other‐rated OCB generally contributed negligible incremental variance to correlates and only contributed appreciable incremental variance to other‐rated behavioral variables (e.g., task performance and counterproductive work behavior). Implications and future research directions are discussed, particularly regarding the need to establish a nomological network for other‐rated OCB. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Isms and schisms: A meta‐analysis of the prejudice‐discrimination relationship across racism,sexism, and ageism

Racism, sexism, and ageism persist in modern day organizations and may translate into workplace discrimination, which can undermine organizational effectiveness. We provide the first meta‐analysis comparing the relationships between these three types of prejudice (racism, sexism, and ageism) and three types of workplace discrimination (selection, performance evaluation, and opposition to diversity‐supportive policies). Across outcomes, racism was associated with workplace discrimination, whereas sexism was not. Ageism was associated with discriminatory selection and opposition to organizational policies supporting older workers; however, ageism was not related to discriminatory performance evaluation. Consistent with prior research and theory, Implicit Association Test measures were related to subtle discrimination (opposition to diversity‐supportive policies) but not deliberate discrimination (selection and performance evaluation). Finally, prejudice was more strongly associated with discrimination against real as compared with hypothetical targets. Implications for organizational researchers and practitioners are discussed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Building work engagement: A systematic review and meta‐analysis investigating the effectiveness of work engagement interventions

Low work engagement may contribute towards decreased well‐being and work performance. Evaluating, boosting and sustaining work engagement are therefore of interest to many organisations. However, the evidence on which to base interventions has not yet been synthesised. A systematic review with meta‐analysis was conducted to assess the evidence for the effectiveness of work engagement interventions. A systematic literature search identified controlled workplace interventions employing a validated measure of work engagement. Most used the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES). Studies containing the relevant quantitative data underwent random‐effects meta‐analyses. Results were assessed for homogeneity, systematic sampling error, publication bias and quality. Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria and were categorised into four types of interventions: (i) personal resource building; (ii) job resource building; (iii) leadership training; and (iv) health promotion. The overall effect on work engagement was small, but positive, k = 14, Hedges g = 0.29, 95%‐CI = 0.12–0.46. Moderator analyses revealed a significant result for intervention style, with a medium to large effect for group interventions. Heterogeneity between the studies was high, and the success of implementation varied. More studies are needed, and researchers are encouraged to collaborate closely with organisations to design interventions appropriate to individual contexts and settings, and include evaluations of intervention implementation. © 2016 The Authors. Journal of Organizational Behavior published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A meta‐analysis of sleep and work performance: An examination of moderators and mediators

The present study utilizes meta‐analytic techniques to examine the literature on sleep and work performance. In line with previous meta‐analytic research, results indicate that sleep and work performance have a positive relationship. However, more importantly, results from moderator analyses reveal that the type of sleep measurement (sleep quantity and sleep quality), work performance measurement (task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive work behavior), analysis method (between‐person and within‐person), sleep report source (self‐report, other report, and objective), sleep recall window (day, week/month, and more than 1 month), and study setting (field and laboratory) differentially influence the strength of the sleep–work performance relationship. Furthermore, meta‐analytic SEM results indicate that certain mediators (affect, job attitudes, and cognitive resources) provide stronger explanations (i.e., stronger indirect effects) for the relationship between sleep and work performance, depending on the specific type of performance being examined. In general, results highlight the importance of construct operationalization and methodology decisions when conducting sleep–work performance research and provide greater insight into explanations for the relationship between sleep and work performance. Research implications, practical implications, potential limitations, and future directions are also discussed.     

Long work hours: a social identity perspective on meta‐analysis data

The current study utilizes social identity theory to investigate employees' work hours. Specifically, we use meta‐analysis to examine the relationships between hours worked and indicators of organizational identity (e.g., organizational support and tenure), occupational identity (e.g., human capital investments and work centrality), and family identity (e.g., family responsibilities and family satisfaction). The meta‐analysis also allowed us to explore other important correlates of hours worked (e.g., situational demands, job performance, mental health, and physical health), moderating variables (e.g., age, gender, and job complexity), and curvilinear relationships of work hours to social identity indicators. Overall, we found that occupational factors and situational demands had the strongest relationships with hours worked, hours worked were negatively associated with measures of employee well‐being, gender had several significant moderating effects, and there were curvilinear relationships between hours worked and well‐being and work–family conflict variables. The article concludes with directions for future theoretical and empirical research. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attitudinal organizational commitment and job performance: a meta‐analysis

A meta‐analysis was conducted to estimate the true correlation between attitudinal organizational commitment and job performance and to identify moderators of this correlation. One‐hundred and eleven samples from 93 published studies were included. The corrected mean correlation was 0.20. The correlation was at least marginally significantly stronger for: (a) extra‐role performance as opposed to in‐role performance; (b) white‐collar workers as opposed to blue‐collar workers; and (c) performance assessed by self ratings as opposed to supervisor ratings or objective indicators. Four other assumed moderators (commitment measure: Affective Commitment Scale versus Organizational Commitment Questionnaire, job level, age, and tenure) did not have at least marginally significant effects. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Towards a multi‐foci approach to workplace aggression: A meta‐analytic review of outcomes from different perpetrators

Using meta‐analysis, we compare three attitudinal outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, affective commitment, and turnover intent), three behavioral outcomes (i.e., interpersonal deviance, organizational deviance, and work performance), and four health‐related outcomes (i.e., general health, depression, emotional exhaustion, and physical well being) of workplace aggression from three different sources: Supervisors, co‐workers, and outsiders. Results from 66 samples show that supervisor aggression has the strongest adverse effects across the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Co‐worker aggression had stronger effects than outsider aggression on the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, whereas there was no significant difference between supervisor, co‐worker, and outsider aggression for the majority of the health‐related outcomes. These results have implications for how workplace aggression is conceptualized and measured, and we propose new research questions that emphasize a multi‐foci approach. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Meta‐analytic tests of relationships between organizational justice and citizenship behavior: testing agent‐system and shared‐variance models

Research on the unique effects of different types of perceived fairness on citizenship behavior that benefits individuals (organizational citizenship behavior (OCB‐I) and organizations (OCB‐O) has produced mixed results. We assert that how OCB‐O and OCB‐I are conceptualized affects the patterns of results, and we hypothesize that, when OCB is conceptualized appropriately, an agent‐system model is supported (interactional and procedural justice are the strongest unique predictors of OCB‐I and OCB‐O, respectively). We also hypothesize that shared variance among the justice types explains additional variance in OCB. Analyses of semi‐ partial correlations conducted on meta‐analytic coefficients supported our hypotheses. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐monitoring personality trait at work: An integrative narrative review and future research directions

In this narrative review, we provide an overview of the self‐monitoring literature as it applies to the workplace context. Our starting point to the review is a meta‐analysis of self‐monitoring literature published in 2002 by Day, Schleicher, Unckless, and Hiller. After providing an overview of the theoretical basis of self‐monitoring and its measurement, we present a summary of the broad literature on self‐monitoring to examine the implications of self‐monitoring for employees and organizations. Based on our review, we identify the main outcomes of self‐monitoring as well as findings of the literature treating self‐monitoring as a moderator. We provide evidence that self‐monitoring has potential downsides, which would benefit from further investigation. We conclude our review by identifying important potential future research directions.     

A meta‐analytic evaluation of diversity training outcomes

The purpose of this meta‐analysis was to use theory and research on diversity, attitudes, and training to examine potential differential effects on affective‐based, cognitive‐based, and skill‐based outcomes, to examine potential moderators of those effects with a focus on affective‐based outcomes, and finally, to provide quantitative estimates of these posited relationships. Results from 65 studies (N = 8465) revealed sizable effects on affective‐based, cognitive‐based, and skill‐based outcomes as well as interesting boundary conditions for these effects on affective‐based outcomes. This study provides practical value to human resources managers and trainers wishing to implement diversity training within organizations as well as interesting theoretical advances for researchers. Practitioners have quantitative evidence that diversity training changes affective‐based, cognitive‐based, and skill‐based trainee outcomes. This study also supports and addresses future research needs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

25 years of higher‐order confirmatory factor analysis in the organizational sciences: A critical review and development of reporting recommendations

We discuss how confirmatory factor analysis results should be used to examine potential higher‐order constructs and advocate that researchers present five types of evidence, which are as follows: (1) the ability of the higher‐order model to reproduce the observed covariation among manifest variables; (2) the ability of the higher‐order model to reproduce the observed covariation among manifest variables better than more parsimonious alternative models—and no less well than less parsimonious alternative models; (3) the ability of the higher‐order model to reproduce the observed covariation among lower‐order factors; (4) the ability of the higher‐order factor to explain variation in lower‐order factors; and (5) the ability of the higher‐order factor to explain variation in manifest variables. We illustrate how this type of evidence could be presented with a worked example and contrast our recommendations with the manner in which higher‐order confirmatory factor analysis has been used in the organizational sciences over the past 25 years to support claims regarding higher‐order constructs such as core self‐evaluations and transformational leadership. Our review shows that a substantial proportion of the 44 examined articles failed to present enough evidence to allow readers to understand the size and importance of higher‐order factors. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Idiosyncratic deals in contemporary organizations: A qualitative and meta‐analytical review

Idiosyncratic deals (i‐deals) research focuses on the emergence of customized work arrangements employees negotiate with their employers. This article provides a critical review and synthesis of i‐deals research, combining a qualitative review of i‐deals theory and research with a supplementary meta‐analysis of 23 empirical studies (k = 27 samples, N = 8110 individuals). The qualitative review examines the conceptualization and measurement of i‐deals and identifies patterns and gaps in i‐deals research, while the quantitative meta‐analysis tests the moderating effect of societal cultures on the predictors and consequences of ideals investigated to date. In each section, attention is given to strengths and weaknesses of current approaches to i‐deals theory and research. Future research directions are identified with particular emphasis on the largely unexamined role of i‐deals from a multilevel perspective. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Getting to the core of core self‐evaluation: a review and recommendations

The theory of core self‐evaluation (CSE) has provided organizational scholars with a framework for describing disposition‐based effects on work attitudes and behaviors. Although the CSE construct has been useful for predicting various phenomena, there are potential weaknesses concerning how it is conceptualized and used. We review limitations regarding CSE theory, its measurement, and specific traits, and provide recommendations for addressing them. Key recommendations include strengthening the theory underlying CSE, specifying CSE as an aggregate construct with causal indicators, representing CSE as a multidimensional construct rather than a scale score, and incorporating a trait that reflects approach motivation. Theoretical and empirical evidence that relate to our recommendations are presented. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Making sense of organizational change: Is hindsight really 20/20?

This qualitative study explores the conceptual links between 2 different approaches to managerial cognition, sensemaking and cognitive bias, in the context of organizational change. A longitudinal case study utilizing both real‐time assessments and retrospective sensemaking data from interviews with 26 hospital employees at 3 points in time was undertaken. Patterns related to individuals' retrospective accounts and real‐time assessments were identified and used to construct 4 prototypical narratives. Data analysis revealed that organizational change was not a markedly negative experience for most informants, which is contrary to the prevailing theme in the literature. This and other findings are discussed in terms of sensemaking and cognitive bias. This study makes 2 contributions to our understanding of how individual's experience and make sense of organizational change over time as (a) little is known about how the process of change unfolds over time at the individual level and (b) extant research has not investigated the extent to which individuals' retrospective sensemaking about organizational change reflects or diverges from their real‐time assessments over the course of the change. More broadly, the study provides insights and focused advice for management researchers regarding the use of retrospective data to understand individuals' perceptions of situations that have already occurred.     

Beyond the mean: Understanding firm‐level consequences of variability in diversity climate perceptions

We develop and test an organizational‐level model of the consequences of diversity climate for company performance. Drawing from affective events theory and the organizational climate literature, we highlight the role of idiosyncrasies in employees' diversity climate perceptions. Specifically, we consider diversity climate strength (i.e., agreement in employees' climate perceptions) as a boundary condition of diversity climate's organizational‐level effects and expect high climate strength to be particularly beneficial in demographically diverse organizations. Moreover, we introduce collective positive affect as an underlying mechanism of diversity climate's conditional effects on company performance. Hypotheses are tested in a study of 82 German small‐and‐medium‐sized companies with 13,695 surveyed employees. Results show a moderated mediation relationship where diversity climate is only positively related to organizational performance (via collective positive affect) at relatively high diversity climate strength. Although this finding holds for both demographically diverse and homogeneous organizations, post hoc analyses provide initial evidence that a strong climate only helps to realize the effects of diversity climate on collective positive affect when members of age‐ and gender‐related demographic subgroups converge in their climate perceptions. Our study contributes to a better understanding of diversity climate as an effective lever for managing diversity.     

The impact of non‐performance information on ratings of job performance: A policy‐capturing approach

Researchers have suggested that rater motives and the organizational context should be considered as sources of performance appraisal inaccuracies. A review of the performance appraisal literature revealed three primary non‐performance factors that managers consider when rating employee performance: (a) Potential negative consequences of ratings, (b) organizational norms, and (c) the opportunity to advance self‐interests. Using a policy‐capturing methodology, the current study investigated if these three non‐performance factors, as well as individual rater differences (e.g., conscientiousness, agreeableness, and performance appraisal experience), influence performance ratings. A sample of 303 experienced managers rated the performance of a fictitious employee, featured in a series of hypothetical scenarios, in which the above information was manipulated. Using hierarchical linear modeling, the results revealed that each of the three non‐performance related considerations accounted for variance incremental to objective employee performance. Managers' performance appraisal experience also predicted ratings, such that more experience was associated with lower ratings. These results provide support for the view that non‐performance factors can be a substantive component of performance ratings. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Empowering leadership: A meta‐analytic examination of incremental contribution,mediation, and moderation

The concept of empowering leadership (EL) has seen increasing scholarly interest in recent years. This study reports a meta‐analysis investigating the effects of EL on employee work behavior. On the basis of data from 105 samples, we found evidence for the positive effects of EL on performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity at both the individual and team levels. We further examined these relationships by exploring potential boundary conditions and the incremental contribution of EL over transformational leadership and leader–member exchange. Furthermore, at the individual level, both trust in leader and psychological empowerment mediated the relationships of EL with task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity. We also found evidence that leader–member exchange was a significant mediator between EL and task performance. At the team level, empowerment mediated the effects of EL on team performance, whereas knowledge sharing showed no significant indirect effect. Our results have important theoretical and practical implications and suggest some areas that require further research.