Individualism–collectivism and team member performance: Another look

This study revisits the commonplace research conclusion that greater team member collectivism, as opposed to individualism, is associated with higher levels of individual‐level performance in teams. Whereas this conclusion is based on the assumption that work in teams consists exclusively of tasks that are shared, typical teamwork also includes tasks that are individualized. Results of a laboratory study of 206 participants performing a mix of individualized and shared tasks in four‐person teams indicate that heterogeneous combinations of individualism and collectivism are associated with higher levels of team member performance, measured as quantity of output, when loose structural interdependence enables individual differences in individualism–collectivism to exert meaningful effects. These results support the modified conclusion that a combination of individualism and collectivism is associated with higher levels of member performance in teams under typical work conditions; that is, conditions in which the tasks of individual members are both individualized and shared. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Collectivistic orientation in teams: an individual and group-level analysis

With the increasing use of work teams in U.S. industry, understanding team members' collectivistic orientation toward group goals and activities is critical for developing cooperative and productive teams. Using the research on expectancy theory, self-efficacy, locus of control, and individualism–collectivism, collectivism is examined as both an individual difference variable and a group composition variable. One hundred and forty-eight individuals (comprising 33 groups) working on a complex and interdependent task comprised the research sample. Results indicated that individual difference variables of self-efficacy for teamwork, need for social approval, and positive past experience working in teams were related to self-report collectivism. Additionally, team collectivistic orientation was examined as a group composition variable and found to be related to cooperative team behaviors. In turn, these cooperative team behaviors acted as a mediator of the relationship between team collectivistic orientation and team performance. Results are discussed in terms of theory building and applied research. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The proficiency trap: how to balance enriched job designs and the team's need for support

The present study seeks to enlighten our understanding of ways to promote the performance of teams of professionals. Considering that job enrichment practices might block support for a team, and hence its performance, the study examined the moderating effects of cultural factors, namely individualism–collectivism and power distance, and the team leader's practices as a source of support in the job enrichment–team support relationship. Further, the study examined the mediating role of team support in improving the performance of professional teams. Results from 56 healthcare teams from different hospitals indicated that attempts to promote professionals' performance should consider at a minimum how to balance job enrichment practices and the team's need for support. The findings suggest that this balance could be achieved by emphasizing the support provided by the leader, and by strengthening the cultural values of low power distance and collectivism in the team. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Individualism-collectivism as an individual difference predictor of organizational citizenship behavior

Though it appears intuitively appealing that individual differences should be related to a person's decision to perform citizenship behaviors, the search for such individual differences has yet to yield clear results. In this study, data were collected to assess the extent of a relationship between individualism–collectivism as a within culture individual difference and self-reports of organizational citizenship behaviors. Results suggest that if an individual holds collectivistic values or norms, he/she would be more likely to perform citizenship behaviors. In addition, this relationship was found to be robust to common method effects and to the effect of the relationship between procedural justice and OCB. Implications for the way collectivistic tendencies within cultures may be used in organizations are discussed.     

A meta‐analytic comparison of self‐reported and other‐reported organizational citizenship behavior

Given the common use of self‐ratings and other‐ratings (e.g., supervisor or coworker) of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), the purpose of this meta‐analysis was to evaluate the extent to which these rating sources provide comparable information. The current study's results provided three important lines of evidence supporting the use and construct‐related validity of self‐rated OCB. The meta‐analysis of mean differences demonstrated that the mean difference in OCB ratings is actually quite small between self‐ and other‐raters. Importantly, the difference between self‐ and other‐raters was influenced by neither the response scale (i.e., agreement vs. frequency) nor the use of antithetical/reverse‐worded items on OCB scales. The meta‐analysis of correlations showed that self‐ and other‐ratings are moderately correlated but that self–other convergence is higher when antithetical items are not used and when agreement response scales are used. In addition, self‐ratings and supervisor‐ratings showed significantly more convergence than self‐ratings and coworker‐ratings. Finally, an evaluation of self‐rated and other‐rated OCB nomological networks showed that although self‐rated and other‐rated OCBs have similar patterns of relationships with common correlates, other‐rated OCB generally contributed negligible incremental variance to correlates and only contributed appreciable incremental variance to other‐rated behavioral variables (e.g., task performance and counterproductive work behavior). Implications and future research directions are discussed, particularly regarding the need to establish a nomological network for other‐rated OCB. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Transformational leadership,relationship quality,and employee performance during continuous incremental organizational change

Although transformational leadership has been investigated in connection with change at higher levels of organizations, less is known about its “in‐the‐trenches” impact. We examined relations among transformational leadership, explicit change reactions (i.e., relationship quality), change frequency, and change consequences (i.e., task performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)) during continuous incremental organizational change at lower hierarchical levels. In a sample of 251 employees and their 78 managers, analyses revealed that the quality of relationships between leaders and employees mediated the influence of transformational leadership on employee task performance and OCB. We also found that change frequency moderated the positive association of relationship quality with task performance and OCB, such that associations were stronger when change frequency was high. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Conflict,justice, and inequality: Why perceptions of leader–member exchange differentiation hurt performance in teams

To better understand why leader–member exchange (LMX) differentiation in teams may be detrimental to individual and team performance, we propose that team members' perception of LMX differentiation (PLMXD) is more important than statistical measures of LMX differentiation. Specifically, we hypothesize a multilevel model in which relationship conflict and procedural justice (climate) mediate the relationships of individual and collective PLMXDs with individual and team performance, respectively. Using a sample of 235 individuals in 53 teams, we found that individual PLMXD was negatively related to individual performance through relationship conflict perceptions, controlling for LMX. At the team level, collective PLMXD was negatively related to team performance through procedural justice climate and relationship conflict, controlling for a statistical measure of LMXD. Theoretical implications and directions for future research are explored.     

Scaling the quality of teammates' mental models: equifinality and normative comparisons

We tested the impact of teammates' team and task mental model sharedness on team processes and performance using 70 undergraduate teams that completed a series of missions on a PC‐based flight simulator. Moreover, we considered how the quality of mental models might moderate such relationships. Team processes were found to partially mediate the relationship between task mental model sharedness and team performance. Although team mental model sharedness failed to exhibit a significant linear relationship with team processes or performance, it did evidence a multiplicative relationship as moderated by the quality of those models. Team processes and performance were better among teams sharing higher‐quality team mental models than among teams evidencing less sharedness or who had lower‐quality models. Again, team processes partially mediated these relationships. Results are discussed in terms of the equifinality of mental model quality and applications to various team environments. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Missing persons in the study of groups

This research examined relationships between team‐level variables with various patterns of individual non‐response. In the first analysis, professional basketball teams (n = 389) were used to study the relationship between team cooperation and team performance. In the second analysis, the same teams were used to study the relationship between team experience and team performance. In the third analysis, professional baseball teams (n = 1984) were used to study the relationship between team experience and team performance. Individuals were deleted from the complete data sets to simulate three different types of non‐response that might be encountered in organizational group or team research. In all three analyses, team‐level relationships were attenuated as individual members were deleted randomly. Team‐level relationships were also generally reduced as individuals were deleted as a function of their level of participation with the team. The overall amount of variance explained, however, showed a pronounced curvilinear effect. Namely, in all three analyses, the variance explained in team performance peaked when 30–40 per cent of the low‐participation members were deleted. Finally, in the first analysis, relationships were also attenuated as the least cooperative members were deleted from the data set. The results demonstrate the need for researchers to understand the diverse effects of various types of non‐response in team and group research. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multilevel knowledge and team performance

We examined team performance as it was affected by organizationally supported face-to-face and technology-mediated knowledge practices. Guided by an information processing perspective, we demonstrate from a field study of over 250 teams within a global Fortune 100 technology company that team member participation in face-to-face and technology-mediated knowledge practices (e.g., community of practice (CoP) meeting attendance and use of CoP-related technologies, respectively), and team knowledge sharing practices are positively related to individual team member knowledge. We predicted that absorptive capacity would moderate tacit knowledge relationships with team performance, and that transactive memory would moderate explicit knowledge relationships with team performance. We found that the patterns of relationships differed depending on the measure of team performance. The predictions held for absorptive capacity by tacit knowledge on manager-assessed performance, and for transactive memory by explicit knowledge on customer satisfaction. Additionally, there was a significant direct effect, with no moderation, of tacit knowledge on customer satisfaction. We highlight multilevel modeling for team research and argue for joint consideration of organizational and technology practices. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Commitment,procedural fairness,and organizational citizenship behavior: a multifoci analysis

Research on commitment, procedural fairness, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) suggests that employees maintain distinct beliefs about, and direct behaviors towards, multiple targets in the workplace (e.g., the organization as a whole, their supervisor, and fellow workgroup members). The present studies were designed to test for “target similarity effects,” in which the relationships between commitment, procedural fairness, and OCB were expected to be stronger when they referred to the same target than when they referred to different targets. As predicted, we found that: (1) the positive relationship between commitment and OCB, and (2) the mediating effect of commitment on the positive relationship between procedural fairness and OCB, was particularly likely to emerge when the constructs were in reference to the same target. Support for these target similarity effects was found among layoff survivors (Study 1) and student project teams (Study 2). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, as are limitations of the studies and suggestions for future research. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are men better negotiators everywhere? A meta‐analysis of how gender differences in negotiation performance vary across cultures

Prior research has found that each culture and gender influences negotiation strategies and outcomes, but less is known about their interplay. We integrate these two research streams by providing a meta‐analytic review of the interactive impact of gender and culture on negotiation performance. We reviewed 185 studies that reported gender differences in intracultural negotiation performance across 30 societies that varied across seven cultural dimensions. Results showed that Hofstede's individualism–collectivism, GLOBE's in‐group collectivism and assertiveness practices, and Schwartz's harmony moderated the gender effect on negotiation performance. We found that in cultures lower in individualism, higher in in‐group collectivism practices, lower in assertiveness practices, and higher in harmony, women more likely outperformed men in negotiations. Implications for the role of gender and culture in negotiations and organizations more broadly are discussed.     

The effects of job complexity and autonomy on cohesiveness in collectivistic and individualistic work groups: a cross‐cultural analysis

Increased job complexity and autonomy have often been associated with improved performance in work groups. This study examines the mediating effect of group cohesiveness. The moderating effects of individualism/collectivism on the relationship between job characteristics (both complexity and autonomy) and cohesiveness are also tested. The sample consists of 381 teams drawn from the Hong Kong and U.S. branches of an international bank. The findings indicate that an increase in job complexity and/or task autonomy will increase group cohesiveness, which subsequently translates to better performance. The positive effects of job complexity and autonomy on group cohesiveness are also found to be more prominent for individualistic rather than collectivistic work groups. The theoretical implications of the results and the limitations of the study are also discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of quality improvement practices on team effectiveness: a mediational model

Researchers have been challenged to specify the processes that quality improvement (QI) practices could be expected to generate and to explain how they might contribute to organizational effectiveness. This research article meets that challenge through a study of 97 teams in the health care field. The authors developed a ‘Quality Improvement Practices Index’ and showed that QI practices could be differentiated from traditional team‐level variables, and that such practices affect both directly and indirectly (through team‐level variables) team effectiveness. Two models were tested using structural equation modelling. It was found that the perceptions of the impact of QI practices on team effectiveness varied depending on who was assessing the team's performance—members of the team or managers who were external to the team but responsible for the team's performance. The authors discuss the implications of these results both for researchers and practitioners. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Empirical Investigation of the Influence of Safety Climate on Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Taiwan’s Facilities

Although the social exchange relationships between employers and employees are increasingly important to the performance of safety management systems, the psychological effects of work attitudes on this relationship have been less studied. Using a sample of first-line operators and their supervisors from 188 facilities in Taiwan which had Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series 18000 (OHSAS 18000) certification, the current research conducted an empirical investigation of the influence of safety climate on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Work attitude was used to disclose the psychological effect. Research results indicated that (a) safety climate was a significant predicator of OCB, (b) the psychological effect significantly influenced social exchange relationships, and (c) job satisfaction showed a stronger mediating influence than organizational commitment due to the frequent top management turnover. Discussions and implications are also addressed.     

An empirical investigation of the influence of safety climate on organizational citizenship behavior in Taiwan's facilities.

Although the social exchange relationships between employers and employees are increasingly important to the performance of safety management systems, the psychological effects of work attitudes on this relationship have been less studied. Using a sample of first-line operators and their supervisors from 188 facilities in Taiwan which had Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series 18000 (OHSAS 18000) certification, the current research conducted an empirical investigation of the influence of safety climate on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Work attitude was used to disclose the psychological effect. Research results indicated that (a) safety climate was a significant predicator of OCB, (b) the psychological effect significantly influenced social exchange relationships, and (c) job satisfaction showed a stronger mediating influence than organizational commitment due to the frequent top management turnover. Discussions and implications are also addressed.     

Group-level organizational citizenship behavior: Effects of demographic faultlines and conflict in small work groups

Organizational scholars have recently shifted their attention to examining organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) as a group-level phenomenon. Adopting the input-mediator-outcome model of group performance, we examined antecedents and intermediate processes that predict group-level OCB (GOCB) in small work groups. The results, based on data from 62 work groups representing a variety of industries, revealed that demographic faultlines based on relation-oriented attributes (gender, age, and race) and a task-related attribute (tenure) had differentiated relationships with task and relationship conflict, which mediated the relationships between faultlines and group outcomes (GOCB and group performance). Both task and relationship conflict were negative predictors of group performance. However, task conflict increased GOCB, whereas relationship conflict decreased it. The present study offers evidence of the relationship between demographic faultlines and various group processes and outcome variables in natural work groups. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Empirical analysis of shared leadership promotion and team creativity: An adaptive leadership perspective

Promoting shared leadership in teams and enhancing team creativity is aided by complementarity between leader and team member characteristics. We integrate insights from social learning theory and dominance complementarity perspective with the team leadership and creativity literature to explore the facilitating role of formal participative leadership for enhancing team creativity indirectly by promoting shared leadership. The relationships among formal participative leadership, shared leadership, and team creativity are bounded by team voice behavior and team creative efficacy. To test our theoretical model, we collected multisource and multiwave survey data from 382 members of 73 teams. Results revealed a significant positive relationship of participative leadership with shared leadership in teams, which in turn was positively associated with team creativity. Team voice behavior and team creative efficacy moderated these relationships, respectively, by strengthening the positive relationships. We discuss the theoretical contributions, practical implications, and future directions of our findings.     

A multilevel investigation of predictors and outcomes of shared leadership

For modern organizations, shared leadership becomes increasingly important. Knowledge on shared leadership may be limited, as past research often relies on cross-sectional data or student samples, and most studies neglect the multilevel nature of shared leadership. Our research model includes transformational leadership, trust, and organizational support as predictors of shared leadership. Furthermore, we analyze the influence of shared leadership on team performance and team creativity. In total, 160 teams with 697 employees participated in our field study. Data collection took place at three time points. To test our hypotheses, we used multilevel modeling with a Bayesian estimator. We found relationships of transformational leadership and trust with shared leadership at the team level and of transformational leadership, trust, and organizational support with shared leadership at the individual level. Furthermore, shared leadership fully mediated the effect of the three input factors on team performance and team creativity. This study contributes to the understanding of the antecedents and outcomes of shared leadership. Furthermore, the dynamic development of team processes based on an input–mediator–output model is explored. On the basis of the results, organizations can increase shared leadership behavior by focusing on transformational leadership and trust building.     

The impact of impression‐management tactics on supervisor ratings of organizational citizenship behavior

Previous research indicates that the use of impression management is related to supervisor ratings of employee likeability and job performance. It has been argued, though, that employees might also use impression management so that their superiors will see them as ‘good soldiers’ who engage in high levels of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). This study investigates the ways in which three types of impression management—namely, job‐focused, self‐focused, and supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management—influence supervisor ratings of OCB. Using a sample of 122 supervisor‐subordinate dyads, the findings indicate that supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management are positively related to OCB ratings, while job‐focused tactics are negatively related to such evaluations. Additionally, citizenship behaviors are positively related to supervisor liking of the employee and overall ratings of job performance. Finally, the results suggest that OCB ratings mediate the relationship between supervisor‐focused tactics of impression management and supervisor evaluations of employee likeability. Some implications of this study and directions for future research are also addressed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.