Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediment and bivalves from Korean coastal waters

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in sediment and bivalves collected from 25 coastal locations in Korea. Twenty major PBDE congeners were found in all sediment and bivalve samples. SigmaPBDE20 concentrations ranged from 0.45 to 494 ng/g, dry weight (average 27.8 ng/g dry weight) in sediments, and from 0.38 to 9.19 ng/g, wet weight (average 2.94 ng/g wet weight) in bivalves. The highest concentrations were found at locations near industrial complexes and large harbors, suggesting that human activities contribute to PBDEs contamination in Korean coastal environment. PBDE concentrations measured in our study, excluding BDE congener 209 (deca-BDE), in sediment and bivalves were lower than those reported from other countries; whereas BDE 209 concentrations were comparable to or higher than those reported from other countries. The predominant PBDE congener in sediments and bivalves was deca-BDE, which accounted for >90% and >60% of the total PBDE concentrations in sediment and bivalves, respectively. This is consistent with high consumption of deca-BDE for the flame-retardant market in Korea. Significant correlations existed among BDEs 28, 47, 99, 100, 153 and 154 in sediments and bivalves; however, BDEs 183 and 209 showed little correlation compared with less highly brominated congeners.     

Congener-specific accumulation and environmental risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in diverse Korean sewage sludge types

Industrial, domestic wastewater, and livestock sludge samples were collected from 23 wastewater treatment plants in Korea and analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The concentrations of Σ₁₉PBDE ranged from 4.01 to 10,400 ng/g dry weight. The average Σ₁₉PBDE concentrations in industrial, domestic wastewater, and livestock sludge were 1,560?±?3,610, 402?±?148, and 27.6?±?50.4 ng/g dry weight, respectively. The composition of PBDEs differed according to the type of sludge. Among the PBDE congeners, BDE 209 was dominant in all sludge samples. After BDE 209, relatively high levels were found for BDE 28 and 47 from industrial sludge, BDE 47 and 99 from domestic wastewater sludge, and BDE 206, 207, and 208 from livestock sludge. Using hierarchical cluster analysis, sludges were divided into three groups according to PBDE congener composition. A risk assessment of PBDEs in sludge used for soil amendment was carried out. Preliminary results indicated that the potential risk of soil exposed to PBDEs in sludge was relatively low.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in surface sediments of the Yangtze River Delta: Levels, distribution and potential hydrodynamic influence

A total of 32 surface sediments collected from the Yangtze River Estuary, Hangzhou Bay and the Qiantang River were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The concentrations of summation operatorPBDEs (sum of 12 PBDE congeners without BDE 209) and BDE 209 varied from n.d. to 0.55 and from 0.16 to 94.6 ng/g, respectively. The spatial variability of summation operatorPBDEs concentrations indicated that waste discharge from the urban areas might been the main source of PBDEs in the Yangtze River Delta. BDE 209 was the predominant congener (approximately 90-100%) detected among the 13 congeners, consistent with the fact that technical deca-BDE mixtures are presently the dominant technical PBDE mixtures used in China. Compared to published data acquired from other locales, PBDE congeners with less than four bromines were more abundant in the present study area. The hydrodynamic conditions may likely be a significant factor in dictating the observed levels and congener distribution patterns of PBDEs.     

House dust as a source of human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Kuwait

This study reports concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in dust samples collected from 17 homes in Kuwait. PBDEs were measured in all homes investigated with mean summation operatorPBDEs concentration ranging from 1 to 393 ng g(-1), with a geometric mean of 76 ng g(-1). The dominant congener in all samples was BDE 209 constituting ca. 85% of the summationPBDEs followed by BDE 99 (5%), BDE 47 (4.5%), and BDE 183 (2%). The congener mixture in dust is dominated by those in deca and penta formulations. Using the measured concentrations and estimates of dust ingestion rates for children and adults, estimated human non-dietary exposure based on mean PBDE levels were 14.8 and 1.5 ng day(-1) for children and adults, respectively. The 10-fold difference in exposure estimates between children and adults in this study supports previous reports that children are at greater risk from pollutants that accumulate indoors. The ubiquitous distribution of these chemicals as noted in this study highlights the fact that we are continuously exposed to low doses of chemicals in the indoor environment.     

Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plant, shellfish and sediment samples from Laizhou Bay in China

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are potentially harmful and persistent environmental pollutants. PBDEs concentrations are reported in plant, shellfish and sediment samples collected from Chinese Laizhou Bay. The summation operator(11)PBDE concentrations in plant and shellfish samples from Laizhou Bay were in the range of 70-5900ngg(-1) and 230-720ngg(-1) lipid, respectively. The summation operator(11)PBDEs concentrations in river sediment intervals samples ranged from 1.3 to 1800ng g(-1) dry weight. Pearson correlation analyses were performed on concentrations of PBDEs congeners of different sediment sample intervals. There were significant positive correlations for BDE 28 and BDE 100 (r=0.945, p<0.01), BDE 47 and BDE 99 (r=0.879, p<0.01), BDE 153 and BDE 154 (r=0.934, p<0.01), nona-BDEs and BDE 209 (r>0.934, p<0.01). BDE 209 was the predominant congener in all analyzed samples, consistent with the fact that deca-BDE technical mixtures are the dominant PBDEs product in Laizhou Bay. Data showed that PBDEs should be considered as an increasing pollution problem in the Laizhou Bay region.     

Occurrence and concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge from three wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait

Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations were measured in sewage sludge samples collected from three wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait over a six month period. PBDEs were detected in all samples analyzed and there were significant differences between the three wastewater treatment plants. The mean (and range) of summation PBDEs concentrations measured are as follows: Jahra 52.5 ng g(-1) (5.7-169.5 ng g(-1)); Reqqa, 144 ng g(-1) (32-296 ng g(-1)); Umm Haylaman, 377 ng g(-1) (23-1599 ng g(-1)). The differences in concentrations of the sum of penta congeners were consistently different at the three treatment plants with values increasing in the order: Jahra相似文献   

Distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the surface sediments of the Taihu Lake, China

Twenty-eight sediment samples were collected from the Taihu Lake and analyzed to acquire information about the levels, distribution, possible sources, time trend and inventory of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the Taihu Lake. Our results showed that the most abundant BDE congeners in surface sediments were BDE-47, 99 and 209, with a median value of 0.124, 0.279, and 22.72 ng(gdw)(-1), respectively. The levels of BDE-209 in our samples were much higher relative to those of the other BDE congeners and made up more than 80% of the PBDEs levels in almost all samples. Disregarding BDE-209, among the seven PBDEs (BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183) more concerned, the most abundant ones were BDE-47 and 99, which contributed 44.65% (ranged from 29.02% to 73.11%), 24.24% (ranged from 2.27% to 39.66%) to ∑(7)PBDEs, respectively. The correlation between PBDE and TOC was poor, indicating that PBDEs concentrations in sediments of the Taihu Lake were controlled not only by TOC contents, but also by a combined effect of transport, mixing, depositional mechanisms associated with PBDEs, uncontaminated sediments, or fresh input of PBDEs. As expected, the time trend of PBDEs concentration in surface sediment from Taihu Lake were increasing, and the inventory of ∑(25)PBDEs and BDE-209 were estimated to be 3668 kg and 26296 kg.     

Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in various tissues of birds of prey

In the present study, concentrations and tissue distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs; IUPAC # 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, and 209) were examined in brain, adipose tissue, liver, muscle, and serum of birds of prey. Median SigmaPBDE levels (BDE 28-183) in the tissues of sparrowhawks ranged from 360 to 1900 ng/g lipid weight (lw), which was in general one order of magnitude higher than in the tissues of common buzzards (26-130 ng/g lw). There were no differences in PBDE congener patterns between the various tissues within individuals of a certain species. Inter-species differences in PBDE patterns and in particular the percentage of BDE 99, 100 and 153 were, however, pronounced between sparrowhawk and common buzzard. BDE 209 was detected in nearly all serum and in some liver samples, but not in any other tissues. This observation suggests that exposure to BDE 209 is low or that this congener is poorly accumulated. Passive (lipid content related) diffusion could not completely describe the PBDE tissue distribution, e.g. the lowest PBDE-load was measured in brain, a fairly lipid rich tissue.     

Brominated flame retardants and organochlorine pollutants in eggs of little owls (Athene noctua) from Belgium

Residues of brominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in 40 eggs of little owls (Athene noctua), a terrestrial top predator from Belgium. The major organohalogens detected were PCBs (median 2,600 ng/g lipid, range 790-23 000 ng/g lipid). PCB 153,138/163, 170, 180 and 187 were the predominant congeners and constituted 71% of total sum PCBs. PBDEs were measurable in all samples, but their concentrations were much lower than for PCBs, with a range from 29-572 ng/g lipid (median 108 ng/g lipid). The most prevalent PBDE congeners in little owl egg samples were BDE 47, 99 and 153. This profile differs from the profile in marine bird species, for which BDE 47 was the dominant congener, indicating that terrestrial birds may be more exposed to higher brominated BDE congeners than marine birds. The fully brominated BDE 209 could be detected in one egg sample (17 ng/g lipid), suggesting that higher brominated BDEs may accumulate in terrestrial food chains. Brominated biphenyl (BB) 153 was determined in all egg samples, with levels ranging from 0.6 to 5.6 ng/g lipid (median 1.3 ng/g lipid). Additionally, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) could be identified and quantified in only two eggs at levels of 20 and 50 ng/g lipid. OCPs were present at low concentrations, suggesting a rather low contamination of the sampled environment with OCPs (median concentrations of sum DDTs: 826 ng/g lipid, sum chlordanes: 1,016 ng/g lipid, sum HCHs: 273 ng/g lipid). Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and octachlorostyrene (OCS) were also found at low median levels of 134 and 3.4 ng/g lipid, respectively. Concentrations of most analytes were significantly higher in eggs collected from deserted nests in comparison to addled (unhatched) eggs, while eggshell thickness did not differ between deserted and addled eggs. No significant correlations were found between eggshell thickness and the analysed organohalogens.     

Effect of sewage sludges contaminated with polybrominated diphenylethers on agricultural soils

The fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sewage sludge after agricultural application was analysed. This study was based on the analysis of sewage sludge and sludge amended soil samples collected during 2005. PBDE concentrations in sewage sludge ranged from 197 to 1185ng/g dry weight (dw), being deca-BDE-209 the predominant congener. PBDE levels in soils ranged between 21 and 690ng/g dw, being BDE-209 also the predominant congener in all soil samples. Sewage-sludge amendment at the research stations increased concentrations of all BDE congeners 1.2- to 45-fold, with the highest increases for BDE-209. Results obtained evidenced the cumulative effect of the sludge application rates. Moreover, high levels found at soils four years after the last sludge application indicate persistence of PBDEs in soils, including deca-BDE-209.     

Levels and sources of brominated flame retardants in human hair from urban, e-waste, and rural areas in South China

Human hair and indoor dust from urban, e-waste, and rural areas in south China were collected and analyzed for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFRs concentrations in hair from occupational e-waste recycling workers were higher than those from non-occupational exposed residents in other sampling areas. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) are two major BFRs in hair samples. The PBDE congener profiles in hair from the e-waste area are different from those from urban and rural areas with relatively higher contribution of lower brominated congeners. DBDPE, instead of BDE209, has become the major BFR in non-e-waste recycling areas. Significant correlations were found between hair level and dust level for DBDPE and BTBPE but not for PBDEs. The different PBDE congener profiles between dust and hair may suggest that exogenous exposure to the PBDE adsorbed on dust is not a major source of hair PBDEs.     

Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in marine fishes from Chinese coastal waters

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in yellow croakers (Pseudosciaena crocea) and silver pomfrets (Pampus argenteus) collected from nine coastal cities along the eastern China coastline were investigated. PBDE congeners with mono- to hexa-brominated substitutions were detected in the samples, indicating their ubiquitous distribution in the marine environment of China. The total PBDE concentration averaged 3.04 ng g⁻¹ lipid wt, a level that was relatively lower than in other regions of the world, especially North America where Penta-BDE was extensively used. Geographically, the highest concentration of PBDEs was found in Xiamen, and the PBDE levels in yellow croakers were significantly higher than those in pomfrets in most of the selected cities, a pattern which may be related to the different feeding habits of the two species. The congener profiles of PBDEs were found to be different from the commonly detected pattern in fishes from other regions of the world (i.e., BDE47 > BDE99, BDE100 > BDE153, BDE154). BDE47 and BDE154 were the predominant congeners in both species, accounting for more than 60% of the total PBDE concentrations. The reasons for the relatively high proportion of BDE154 may be due to the debromination of higher brominated congeners such as BDE183 and BDE209 by these two species.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ether in sewage sludge in Germany

Sewage sludge samples from 11 municipal waste water treatment plants in Germany were collected from March 2002 to June 2003. Total Tri- to HpBDE concentrations (sum of significant congeners BDE 28, 47, 99, 153, 154 and 183) ranged from 12.5 to 288 (median 108) and DeBDE (BDE 209) concentrations from 97.1 to 2217 (median 256) ng/gd.m. BDE 209 dominated the congener profile. A significant change of the Tri- to HpBDE congener profile (% of total BDE 28, 47, 99, 153, 154, 183 without 209) in sludge from different stages of the waste water treatment process (primary sludge, secondary excess sludge and (dewatered) digested sludge), indicating a degradation of DeBDE to these congeners, was not observed.     

Levels, compositions, and inventory of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge of Guangdong Province, South China

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in sewage sludge samples collected from major wastewater treatment plants in Guangdong Province, South China. Concentrations of ∑₃₉PBDE (all 39 compounds including tri- to hepta- PBDE congeners except for BDE-209) ranged from 3.6 to 428 ng/g dw with a mean value of 67.4 ng/g dw and a median value of 25.9 ng/g dw, and those of BDE-209 ranged from 9.9 to 5,010 ng/g dw (mean 1,024 ng/g dw and median 824 ng/g dw). The PBDE mixtures detected were mainly comprised of penta-, octa-, and deca-BDEs, with deca-BDE as the dominant constituent. The most abundant congeners, excluding BDE-209, were BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-183. Good correlations were found among the concentrations of BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-138, and BDE-154 (r?>?0.8). However, poor correlations were found between the concentrations of BDE-209 and all other congeners (r?<?0.3). This fact suggests that most tri- to hepta-BDEs detected did not originate from decomposition of deca-BDE. The estimated annual emission of ∑_allPBDEs, ∑₃₉PBDEs, penta-BDE, octa-BDE, and deca-BDE to the Pearl River Delta environment (PRD), based on the sludge samples analyzed, amounts to 232, 20.2, 5.5, 1.7, and 212 kg per year, implicating sewage sludge as a significant source of PBDEs to the PRD environment.     

Occurrence, compositional patterns, and possible sources of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in agricultural soil of Shanghai, China

The present study analyzed surface soil collected from agricultural region of Shanghai to determine the occurrence, compositional patterns and possible sources of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The results showed that 32 PBDEs were detected among 44 target PBDEs. Total PBDE concentrations ranged from 129 to 1245 ng kg⁻¹ with a mean of 429 ng kg⁻¹. BDE209 was the predominant congener in a range of 33.2-796 ng kg⁻¹ with a mean of 254 ng kg⁻¹. Meanwhile, BDE47, BDE49, BDE153, BDE190, and BDE99 have the most abundant with high concentrations and detectable frequencies. PBDE congeners and homologues analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) also revealed that the major source of PBDE in the soil samples was associated with the prevalent use of technical decabromodiphenyl ether (Deca-BDE) and pentabromodiphenyl ether (Penta-BDE). The correlation analysis proved that there was a significant correlation between total organic carbon (TOC) and lower brominated PBDEs, indicating the significant diffuse nature of the sources of these congeners.     

Occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and 2,2’,4,4’,5,5’-hexabromobiphenyl (BB-153) in water samples from the Diep River, Cape Town, South Africa

Until recently, studies reporting the concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) as well as polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) are generally scarce in the literature. Consequently, this study was aimed to investigate the occurrence and concentrations of certain PBDE congeners (BDE 28, 47, 100, 99, 154, 153, 183 and 209) and BB 153 in river water samples collected bi-monthly from the Diep River. The routine analyses of the target compounds were performed using a high-capillary GC–microelectron capture detection, while their structural elucidation was assessed using GC-TOF-MS technique. The overall mean concentrations of the sum of the eight PBDE congeners were 2.60, 4.83 and 4.29 ng/L for the upstream, point of discharge and downstream sampling points, respectively. Similarly, the overall mean concentrations of BB 153 were 0.25, 4.85 and 1.56 ng/L for the upstream, point of discharge and downstream sampling points, respectively. BDE 47 was the dominant congener found in these samples contributing between 19 and 26 % to the total PBDEs across the sampling points. The statistical analyses performed on the results obtained showed that all the congeners, except BDE 209 in certain instances, had strong positive correlations with one another, thus suggesting that these contaminants could be emanating from the same source. In this study, potential sources of these pollutants other than WWTP discharges into the investigated river were also identified. However, the relatively high concentrations of the target compounds found at the point of discharge sampling point coupled with the large volume of treated effluent being discharged suggested that the contributions from this source could be very significant over time.     

Determination of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in fish samples from rivers and estuaries in Taiwan

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been used extensively over the past two decades as flame retardants in many types of polymers, and have been found to be a class of contaminants of concern. Measurements of PBDEs in various environmental matrices from Sweden, Holland, Japan, North America, and elsewhere have been reported. We report data of PBDEs in fish samples taken from six rivers and three estuaries in Taiwan. Seven PBDE congeners were observed in all sixty samples. BDE-47 was found to be the dominant congener in all waters, and BDE-154 contributed more than BDE-99 and BDE-100. Nonetheless, BDE-154 and BDE-183 were the predominant congeners in some species studied. These results are somewhat different from those from other countries, where the pattern is typically BDE-47 > 99 >100 >154, 153, and is postulated to be due to the extensive use of octa-BDE rather than penta-BDE in Taiwan. The average concentration distribution across all samples of the sum of PBDE congeners ranged from 30.6 ng/g lipid to 281 ng/g lipid. The concentrations of PBDEs in fishes reported here are higher than those reported from European countries, but lower than those from the United States.     

Dietary exposure of juvenile common sole (Solea solea L.) to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): Part 1. Bioaccumulation and elimination kinetics of individual congeners and their debrominated metabolites

The uptake and elimination of six PBDE congeners (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -209) were studied in juvenile common sole (Solea solea L.) exposed to spiked contaminated food over a three-month period, then depurated over a five-month period. The results show that all of the studied PBDEs accumulate in fish tissues, including the higher brominated congener BDE-209. Several additional PBDE congeners were identified in the tissues of exposed fish, revealing PBDE transformation, mainly via debromination. The identified congeners originating from PBDE debromination include BDE-49 and BDE-202 and a series of unidentified tetra-, penta-, and hepta- BDEs. Contaminant assimilation efficiencies (AEs) were related to their hydrophobicity (log K_ow) and influenced by PBDE biotransformation. Metabolism via debromination appears to be a major degradation route of PBDEs in juvenile sole in comparison to biotransformation into hydroxylated metabolites.     

Contamination and potential sources of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in water and sediment from the artificial Lake Shihwa, Korea

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in water and sediment collected from the artificial Lake Shihwa and surrounding creeks. Total concentrations of 23 PBDE congeners in water and sediment ranged from 0.16 to 11.0 ng L⁻¹ and from 1.3 to 18 700 ng g⁻¹ dry weight, respectively. The concentrations of BDE 209 in water and sediment were 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than the total concentrations of other PBDE congeners. The concentrations of total PBDEs and BDE 209 in sediments were the highest compared to previously reported worldwide levels. The highest concentrations of PBDEs in water and sediments were found in creeks near industrial complexes. The PBDE concentrations gradually decreased with increasing distance from the creeks to the inshore and then offshore regions of the lake. BDE 209 was a major congener, accounting for 80% of the total PBDEs in water and sediment, consistent with a high consumption of deca-BDE for the brominated flame retardant market in Korea. Non-parametric multidimensional scaling ordination showed that surrounding creeks are major pathways of PBDE contamination associated with deca-BDE technical mixtures used in industrial complexes around Lake Shihwa. A significant correlation between total organic carbon and total PBDE concentration was found in sediments, and the correlation coefficients for individual PBDE congeners relatively increased from lower to higher brominated congeners.     

Atmospheric concentrations and phase partitioning of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Izmir, Turkey

Atmospheric concentrations of 7 PBDE congeners (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154 and -209) were determined at four sites (i.e. Suburban, Urban 1, Urban 2, Industrial) in Izmir, Turkey and their gas/particle partitioning was investigated. Total PBDE ( summation operator(7)PBDE) concentrations ranged between 11 (Urban 1) and 149pgm(-3) (Industrial) in summer, while in winter, they ranged from 6 (Suburban) to 81pgm(-3) (Industrial). BDE-209 was the dominant congener at all sites, followed by BDE-99 and -47. Investigation of source profiles indicated that the air samples were dominated by congeners of the penta and deca-technical BDE mixtures. The measured PBDE particle fractions were compared to the predictions of the K(OA) (octanol-air partition coefficient)-based equilibrium partitioning model and to the dynamic uptake model developed by others for passive samplers, which was adapted to model gas-particle partitioning in this study. For BDE-28, good agreement was observed between the experimental particle fractions and those predicted by the equilibrium partitioning model. However, this model overestimated the particle fractions of other congeners. The predictions of the dynamic uptake model supported the hypothesis that the unexpectedly high partitioning of BDEs (except BDE-28) to the gas-phase is due to their departure from equilibrium partitioning. When congeners with very large octanol-air partition coefficients (i.e. BDE-100, -99, -154, -153, and -209) are emitted from their sources in the gas-phase, they may remain in that phase for several months before reaching equilibrium with atmospheric particles. This may also have important implications for the transport of atmospheric PBDEs. For example, in addition to particle-bound transport, the gas-phase transport of highly brominated congeners (i.e. BDE-209) may also be important.