Microecosystem Analysis of the Structure and Functions of Forest Biogeocenoses

The microecosystem approach and an adequate system of quantitative methods have been used to study the relationship between the chorologic changes in the structure and functions of edificator tree stand and other components of the pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest cenoecosystems of the Transural and Northern Turgai regions. Significant correlations of the density of pine undergrowth with the litter thickness; of its growth with root competition, stand closeness, and, to a lower degree, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR); and of the numbers of small mammals and groups of soil mesofauna with herbaceous phytomass have been found. The possibility of the synthesis of population-ecological, synecological, and biogeocenological methods has been demonstrated.     

Dynamics of snowmelt water composition in conifer forests exposed to airborne industrial pollution

An analysis is made of the spatial variability of snowmelt water composition (within and between biogeocenoses), with regard to its long-term dynamics, in pine and spruce forests exposed to airborne industrial pollution from the Europe’s largest Severonikel Copper–Nickel Smelter Complex. Snowmelt waters from under the tree canopy, compared to those from intercrown areas, contain higher concentrations of chemical elements due to their washing and leaching from tree crowns. This is especially true of spruce forests, since the crowns of spruce trees have a high sorption capacity. Distinct trends in the long-term dynamics of snowmelt water composition, related to reduction of industrial emissions, are observed in background forest areas and defoliating forests but not in the vicinity of pollution sources. It is shown that the main factors determining these dynamics in forests of the Kola Peninsula are edificator tree species, airborne industrial pollution, and, possibly, an increase in the number of days with above-zero temperatures in the period of snow accumulation, which facilitates washing and leaching of chemical compounds from tree crowns.     

麻栎混交林空间结构与物种多样性研究

林分空间结构是指林木在林地上的分布格局,以及林木之间树种、大小、分布等空间关系。林分空间结构决定了树木之间的竞争势及其空间生态位,在很大程度上决定了林分的稳定性、发展的可能性和经营空间的大小。研究目的在于揭示麻栎混交林林分空间结构与物种多样性特征,为林分空间结构调整和物种多样性保护提供理论依据。利用混交度、大小比数和角尺度3种空间结构参数,以及丰富度指数、Shannon Wiener指数、Pielou指数等物种多样性数量指标,分析了青阳县麻栎混交林林分空间结构以及群落物种多样性特征。结果表明：乔木层优势树种麻栎多为中度以下混交,小叶栎和枫香多为强度和极强度混交;麻栎在空间大小和重要值对比上占有优势地位,小叶栎处于次要地位,枫香处于劣势地位为受压树种;从林分平面布局上看,该林分空间分布多为随机分布。分层物种丰富度和Shannon Wiener指数依次是乔木层＜草（含藤）本层＜灌木层;而均匀度Pielou指数则是乔木层＜灌木层＜草（含藤）本层;生态优势度Simpson指数为乔木层＞草本层＞灌木层;灌木层有17科18属21种植物,淡竹占优势地位,野茉莉、山胡椒等占亚优势地位;草本层有10科12属13种植物,禾叶土麦冬占优势地位,其次是求米草、爬山虎等。林分空间结构和物种多样性数量特征分析结果均表明该森林类型具有稳定结构的群落特征。〖     

Differences in plant species diversity between conifer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus tabulaeformis</Emphasis>) plantations and natural forests in middle of the Loess plateau

We compared differences in plant species diversity between conifer (Pinus tabulaeformis) plantations and natural secondary forests in the middle of the Loess plateau. The goal of the study was to examine the differences in the effect of stand development on species diversity and in species responses to changes between forest types and between forest layers. To clarify the effects of differences in forest management, we emphasized the functional types of plant species occurring in each forest type. The result as follow: (1) The H′ and S of tree layer were significantly lower in natural conifer forest than old conifer and secondary forest, but were not different compared with mid aged conifer forest. The H′ and S of shrub layer were significantly lower in mid aged conifer forest compared with other forest types. The H′ of herb layer showed no significant differences in the four forest types. The evenness index (J′) of tree layer of mid aged conifer forest was lower than other forest communities and its J′ of shrub layer was highest although its richness of shrub layer was lower than in the other forest types. (2) The analysis of β diversity index also indicated large differences between conifer plantations and natural forests. Although the tree layer species were similar in old plantation and natural conifer forests, they differed greatly between the natural conifer and secondary forests. The natural conifer and secondary forest species composition in shrub layer differed significantly from those in plantation and secondary plots. Tree species were significantly less common in plantations than in abandoned coppice forests. Species composition in the herb layer of different forest types was similar. (3) The management of P. tabulaeformis plantations alters plant species composition considerably; the number of sub tall-tree species is increased in old aged conifer forest, especially species dispersed by animals. Plantation management appears to affect ecological processes through seed dispersal. From the perspective of management, the change in the structure and composition of the canopy in plantations could affect the behavior of dispersers and regeneration.     

Communities of trees along a tropical forest restoration gradient

Increasing rates of deforestation in tropical forests have been linked to agriculturalists. A critical concern generating debate is how well communities of trees recover into a more species rich ecosystem after restoration planting. The aim of the study was to evaluate the pattern of recovery of communities of tree, assess the influence of Acanthus pubescens, Lantana camara and Pennisetum purpureum, on the recovery as well as how restoration planting facilitates recruitment of other native tree seedlings along a gradient of forest restoration in Kibale National Park, Uganda after evictions of illegal settlers. We studied six restoration forests ranging in age from 3 to 16 years, naturally regenerating and three primary forests. Our results showed that recovery with natural regeneration was more effective than restoration planting although the latter enhanced recruitment of other native tree seedling. Tree recovery was generally correlated with age so that species density and diversity increased although at different rates. A reverse pattern was found for dominance but no clear pattern was found for tree density (individual/ha). Communities of tree showed directional patterns of change however community composition were still distinct among the different forests. A. pubescens, L. camara and P. purpureum negatively correlated with species density, tree density and diversity but a positive correlation was found for dominance. Restoration planting can reestablish forests with high species density, tree density and diversity, but this is dependent on age and the extent of the herbs, grasses and shrubs cover in tropical forests.     

The role of remittances and decentralization of forest management in the sustainability of a municipal-communal pine forest in eastern Guatemala

At the national scale, forest cover in Guatemala declined at an annual rate of 1.2% during the past quarter century because of settlement that removed primary forests in the northern region of the country; however, the majority of the population of Guatemala still resides in the densely populated central highlands and has extracted timber and fuelwood from adjacent forests for centuries. Using baseline data recorded in 1987 and 1996, this article reexamined the sustainability of a municipal-communal pine forest in San José La Arada, a municipality in eastern Guatemala. The pine forest declined from the period 1987 to 1996 because of overextraction of timber and fuelwood. Forest structure and forest use were reexamined from the period 1996 to 2007 to test the hypothesis that the forest continued to decline. Forest characteristics such as stand density, basal area, tree height, and evidence of forest use were measured to replicate the procedures from previous work at the study area. To understand changes in forest structure and forest use in the context of the rise in remittances and the introduction of decentralized forest governance that emerged since 1996, a household survey was conducted in two adjacent villages. Forest structure improved from 1996 to 2007. From 1996 to 2007, forest characteristics such as stand density, basal area, tree height, and forest regeneration improved and evidence of forest use decreased in the municipal-communal pine forest. The influence of large amounts of remittances from the United States and other regions of Guatemala to households in the adjacent villages and the decentralization of forest governance largely explains the shift toward forest sustainability in San José La Arada.     

Ecological factors influencing frequency of Norway spruce butt rot in mature stands in Lithuania

We assess the influence of edaphic, climatic, stand structure and individual tree (stump diameter) factors on incidence of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) butt rot. The data used in the study come from 97 stands, originated from natural regeneration, which were clear-cut. The age of the stands varied between 71 and 130 years old. The climate continentality, site fertility, hydrotop (site humidity index), part of Norway spruce in the stand, stand stocking level (density index) and stump diameter were selected as the factors related with frequency of decay. The study material revealed that selected variables explain 34% of Norway spruce butt rot incidence in Lithuanian forests. Site fertility and stand age influence on butt rot incidence was weak. Higher incidence was related with low stand density, low site humidity (dry sites) and higher part of Norway spruce in stand. More frequent damages were recorded on higher diameter stumps. Our results showed longitudinal distribution of decay incidence in Lithuania—the frequency of decay increasing from West (coast) to East (continent).     

Productivity of mosses and organic matter accumulation in the litter of sphagnum larch forest in the permafrost zone

Productivity of the moss cover and necromass accumulation in the litter of a sphagnum larch forest have been estimated on the basis of tree age. It has been shown that the total carbon stock in the litter of a 100-year-old stand, including organic matter not destroyed by fire, exceeds the corresponding value for the tree stand itself by more than an order of magnitude. The accumulation of organic matter on the soil surface inhibits the growth of larch. In particular, this factor impairs hydrothermal conditions in the soil and causes a rise of the permafrost table; as a consequence, lower layers of the root system die off.     

Edge effects on pine stands in a large city

Manifestations of the edge effect on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees and stands were evaluated in natural southern taiga forests growing in a large industrial city (Yekaterinburg, Russia). For this purpose, 14 transects were laid out, each consisting of 6–10 circular 400-m² plots arranged in a line that extended for 140–260 m into the tree stand, perpendicular to its boundary. During transect surveys, 128 records were made of parameters characterizing the state of pine trees (height, diameter, defoliation level, needle age) and stands (density and timber volume). The boundaries differed in age, i.e., the time of formation (no more than 8 years and more than 20 years ago), and type (adjoining to motorways or wastelands). The edge effect manifested itself only near old boundaries and only for tree height (5 m lower near the boundary than deep in the forest) and for stand density and timber volume (25% lower), independently of the boundary type. Since the test parameters linearly increased with distance from the boundary, it was impossible to estimate the range of the edge effect.     

基于"压力-状态-响应"框架的长江上游防护林健康评价

长江上游防护林健康评价对提高防护林生态服务功能有着重要作用。基于“压力 状态 响应”分析框架,选取20项指标建立了长江上游防护林健康评价指标体系,并利用熵技术修正层次分析法确定评价指标体系的权重;运用等级赋分法对评价指标无量钢化,使不同区域的防护林健康评价结果具有可比性。利用健康指数法对官司河流域的主要防护林群落马尾松林、柏树林、栎树林、松柏混交林、桤柏混交林健康水平进行定量化研究。评价结果表明：官司河流域防护林综合健康指数为46.95,各种类型防护林健康指数从高到低依次为：栎树林(55.43)＞桤柏混交林(52.54)＞松柏混交林(50.84)＞柏树林(49.68)＞马尾松林(38.92)。研究结果对于长江上游防护林的空间配置与结构优化有一定的参考价值。     

麻栎混交林空间结构与物种多样性研究

林分空间结构是指林木在林地上的分布格局,以及林木之间树种、大小、分布等空间关系。林分空间结构决定了树木之间的竞争势及其空间生态位,在很大程度上决定了林分的稳定性、发展的可能性和经营空间的大小。研究目的在于揭示麻栎混交林林分空间结构与物种多样性特征,为林分空间结构调整和物种多样性保护提供理论依据。利用混交度、大小比数和角尺度3种空间结构参数,以及丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、Pielou指数等物种多样性数量指标,分析了青阳县麻栎混交林林分空间结构以及群落物种多样性特征。结果表明:乔木层优势树种麻栎多为中度以下混交,小叶栎和枫香多为强度和极强度混交;麻栎在空间大小和重要值对比上占有优势地位,小叶栎处于次要地位,枫香处于劣势地位为受压树种;从林分平面布局上看,该林分空间分布多为随机分布。分层物种丰富度和Shannon-Wiener指数依次是乔木层<草(含藤)本层<灌木层;而均匀度Pielou指数则是乔木层<灌木层<草(含藤)本层;生态优势度Simpson指数为乔木层>草本层>灌木层;灌木层有17科18属21种植物,淡竹占优势地位,野茉莉、山胡椒等占亚优势地位;草本层有10科12属13种植物,禾叶土麦...     

Impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest trees and forest ecosystems: knowledge gaps

Atmospheric CO(2) is rising rapidly, and options for slowing the CO(2) rise are politically charged as they largely require reductions in industrial CO(2) emissions for most developed countries. As forests cover some 43% of the Earth's surface, account for some 70% of terrestrial net primary production (NPP), and are being bartered for carbon mitigation, it is critically important that we continue to reduce the uncertainties about the impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest tree growth, productivity, and forest ecosystem function. In this paper, I review knowledge gaps and research needs on the effects of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forest above- and below-ground growth and productivity, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, water relations, wood quality, phenology, community dynamics and biodiversity, antioxidants and stress tolerance, interactions with air pollutants, heterotrophic interactions, and ecosystem functioning. Finally, I discuss research needs regarding modeling of the impacts of elevated atmospheric CO(2) on forests.Even though there has been a tremendous amount of research done with elevated CO(2) and forest trees, it remains difficult to predict future forest growth and productivity under elevated atmospheric CO(2). Likewise, it is not easy to predict how forest ecosystem processes will respond to enriched CO(2). The more we study the impacts of increasing CO(2), the more we realize that tree and forest responses are yet largely uncertain due to differences in responsiveness by species, genotype, and functional group, and the complex interactions of elevated atmospheric CO(2) with soil fertility, drought, pests, and co-occurring atmospheric pollutants such as nitrogen deposition and O(3). Furthermore, it is impossible to predict ecosystem-level responses based on short-term studies of young trees grown without interacting stresses and in small spaces without the element of competition. Long-term studies using free-air CO(2) enrichment (FACE) technologies or forest stands around natural CO(2) vents are needed to increase the knowledge base on forest ecosystem responses to elevated atmospheric CO(2). In addition, new experimental protocols need to continue to be developed that will allow for mature trees to be examined in natural ecosystems. These studies should be closely linked to modeling efforts so that the inference capacity from these expensive and long-term studies can be maximized.     

Forests and global change: what can genetics contribute to the major forest management and policy challenges of the twenty-first century?

The conservation and sustainable use of forests in the twenty-first century pose huge challenges for forest management and policy. Society demands that forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, from timber products, raw materials and renewable energy to sociocultural amenities and habitats for nature conservation. Innovative management and policy approaches need to be developed to meet these often-conflicting demands in a context of environmental change of uncertain magnitude and scale. Genetic diversity is a key component of resilience and adaptability. Overall, forest tree populations are genetically very diverse, conferring them an enormous potential for genetic adaptation via the processes of gene flow and natural selection. Here, we review the main challenges facing our forests in the coming century and focus on how recent progress in genetics can contribute to the development of appropriate practical actions that forest managers and policy makers can adopt to promote forest resilience to climate change. Emerging knowledge will inform and clarify current controversies relating to the choice of appropriate genetic resources for planting, the effect of silvicultural systems and stand tending on adaptive potential and the best ways to harness genetic diversity in breeding and conservation programs. Gaps in our knowledge remain, and we identify where additional information is needed (e.g., the adaptive value of peripheral populations or the genetic determinism of key adaptive traits) and the types of studies that are required to provide this key understanding.     

Climate change impacts on a pine stand in Central Siberia

The objective of this paper is to analyse the impacts of climate change on a pine forest stand in Central Siberia (Zotino) to assess benefits and risks for such forests in the future. We use the regional statistical climate model STARS to develop a set of climate change scenarios assuming a temperature increase by mid-century of 1, 2, 3 and 4 K. The process-based forest growth model 4C is applied to a 200-year-old pine forest to analyse impacts on carbon and water balance as well as the risk of fire under these climate change scenarios. The climate scenarios indicate precipitation increases mainly during winter and decreases during summer with increasing temperature trend. They cause rising forest productivity up to about 20 % in spite of increasing respiration losses. At the same time, the water-use efficiency increases slightly from 2.0 g C l^?1 H₂O under current climate to 2.1 g C l^?1 H₂O under 4 K scenario indicating that higher water losses from increasing evapotranspiration do not appear to lead to water limitations for the productivity at this site. The simulated actual evaporation increases by up to 32 %, but the climatic water balance decreases by up to 20 % with increasing temperature trend. In contrast, the risk of fire indicated by the Nesterov index clearly increases. Our analysis confirms increasing productivity of the boreal pine stand but also highlights increasing drought stress and risks from abiotic disturbances which could cancel out productivity gains.     

Models of taiga-steppe communities on the western coast of Lake Baikal

As a result of monitoring spatial changes in the cenotic structure of plant communities at the taiga-extrazonal steppe boundary on the western coast of Lake Baikal, models of taiga-steppe communities reflecting the formation, dynamics, and genesis of forests in the taiga zone have been constructed. Changes in the species composition of communities, mesophytization of steppes, the expansion of moss synusiae characteristic of polydominant dark conifer and light conifer taiga forests, active forest invasion into steppe areas, and the presence of dark conifer tree species in light conifer forests have been revealed.     

The distribution pattern of different patch types and heterogeneity of the light and temperature: Larix chinensis Beissn in Qinling Mountains (China)

Based on a field investigation in the sample of an old growth subalpine coniferous forests in Qinling Mountains (China), we recognized the gap-forming processes in Larix chinensis forest for four representative patches (gap phases (G), building phases (B), mature phases (M) and degenerate phases (D)). The distribution pattern of four different patches and heterogeneity of the light and temperature were analyzed. The percentages of four different patch types (G, B, M and D) were 32.3%, 24.5%, 23.5% and 19.7%, respectively. The light and temperature had significant change among four patch types. From 6 to 20 o’clock, gap patch types changed more significantly than other three phases. The light and temperature regimes in mature patch type had a relatively mild change. Such micro-environmental heterogeneity among four different patches can lead to species niche partitioning, and some deterministic factors are benefit to the coexistence of various species with different characteristics within forest community.     

不同水土保持林地土壤有机碳研究

研究了重庆四面山低山丘陵区不同水土保持林地0~20、20~40 和40~60 cm的土壤有机碳含量及不同深度的土壤有机碳密度。结果表明：0~20、20~40 和40~60 cm土层中土壤有机碳含量的平均值分别为3309、751和321 g/kg;0~20 cm的土壤有机碳密度介于497～1431 kg/m2,而0~60 cm的土壤有机碳密度介于784～1794 kg/m2,均值为1278 kg/m2;土壤有机碳含量和有机碳密度随土壤深度增加而显著减少,但其减少程度随水土保持林树种组成不同而异;不同水土保持林地60 cm深度的土壤有机碳密度存在显著差异,表现为：天然次生林>人工林>农耕地,其中,天然阔叶混交林土壤有机碳密度最大,为1794 kg/m2,农耕地的最小,仅为784 kg/m2。人工水土保持林中,阔叶混交林的土壤有机碳密度最大。从增加土壤碳的角度,建议营造阔叶混交林     

Accurate modeling of harvesting is key for projecting future forest dynamics: a case study in the Slovenian mountains

Maintaining the provision of multiple forest ecosystem services requires to take into consideration forest sensitivity and adaptability to a changing environment. In this context, dynamic models are indispensable to assess the combined effects of management and climate change on forest dynamics. We evaluated the importance of implementing different approaches for simulating forest management in the climate-sensitive gap model ForClim and compared its outputs with forest inventory data at multiple sites across the European Alps. The model was then used to study forest dynamics in representative silver fir–European beech stands in the Dinaric Mountains (Slovenia) under current management and different climate scenarios. On average, ForClim accurately predicted the development of basal area and stem numbers, but the type of harvesting algorithm used and the information for stand initialization are key elements that must be defined carefully. Empirical harvesting functions that rigorously impose the number and size of stems to remove fail to reproduce stand dynamics when growth is just slightly under- or overestimated, and thus should be substituted by analytical thinning algorithms that are based on stochastic distribution functions. Long-term simulations revealed that both management and climate change negatively impact conifer growth and regeneration. Under current climate, most of the simulated stands were dominated by European beech at the end of the simulation (i.e., 2150 AD), due to the decline of silver fir and Norway spruce caused mainly by harvesting. This trend was amplified under climate change as growth of European beech was favored by higher temperatures, in contrast to drought-induced growth reductions in both conifers. This forest development scenario is highly undesired by local managers who aim at preserving conifers with high economic value. Overall, our results suggest that maintaining a considerable share of conifers in these forests may not be feasible under climate change, especially at lower elevations where foresters should consider alternative management strategies.     

Identification of Forest Vegetation Using Vegetation Indices

Abstract

Spectral feature of forest vegetation with remote sensing techniques is the research topic all over the world, because forest plays an important role in human beings' living environment. Research on vegetation classification with vegetation index is still very little recently. This paper proposes a method of identifying forest types based on vegetation indices, because the contrast of absorbing red waveband with reflecting near-infrared waveband strongly for different vegetation types is recognized as the theoretic basis of vegetation analysis with remote sensing. Vegetation index is highly related to leaf area index, absorbed photosynthetically active radiation and vegetation cover. Vegetation index reflects photosynthesis intensity of plants and manifests different forest types. According to reflectance data of forest canopy and soil line equation NIR=1.506R+0.0076 in Jingyuetan, Changchun of China, many vegetation indices are calculated and analyzed. The result shows that the relationships between vegetation indices and forest types are that perpendicular vegetation index (PVI) identifies broadleaf forest and coniferous forest the most easily; the next is transformed soil-adjusted vegetation index (TSVI) and modified soil-adjusted vegetation index (MSVI), but their calculation is complex. Ratio vegetation index (RVI) values of different coniferous forest vary obviously, so RVI can classify conifers. Therefore, the combination of PVI and RVI is evaluated to classify different vegetation types.     

重庆缙云山地区森林土壤酸化特征

通过在2010～2012年8月份对重庆缙云山4种典型林分土壤进行野外取样和室内分析,研究了酸沉降对研究地森林土壤酸化的影响,并从多角度深入分析了4种林分土壤在时间和空间上的酸化机理。结果表明：（1）在常年酸沉降的影响下,缙云山森林土壤酸化现象非常严重,pH值较低,表层土壤pH值为387~447,4种林分土壤pH值都随土层加深递增;（2）4种林分有机质含量相差较大,灌木林最高（377 g/kg）,毛竹林最低（1144 g/kg）,且随土层增加而降低,这主要是受枯落物类型和来源的影响;（3）由于长期酸雨淋溶作用,4种林分土壤CEC含量均较低为1276~1973 cmol/kg,表层含量最高,随土层加深递减;（4）4种林分Al3+含量均较高,阔叶林（4097 mmol/kg）>灌木林（3132 mmol/kg）>针阔混交林（3006 mmol/kg）>毛竹林（2615 mmol/kg）。Al3+含量与土壤pH值呈显著负相关关系