Endocrine disruptors in freshwater streams of Hesse, Germany: changes in concentration levels in the time span from 2003 to 2005

Four small freshwater streams in the region known as Hessisches Ried in Germany were investigated with respect to the temporal and spatial concentration variations of the endocrine disruptors bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-tert-OP), and the technical isomer mixture of 4-nonylphenol (tech.-4-NP). Measured concentrations of the target compounds in the river water samples ranged from <20 ng/l to 1927 ng/l, <10 ng/l to 770 ng/l, and <10 ng/l to 420 ng/l for BPA, 4-tert-OP and tech.-4-NP, respectively. BPA levels were, with the exception of two samples, below the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) for water organisms. Tech.-4-NP concentrations showed a significant tendency of decreasing concentrations during the sampling period. This is mainly attributed to the implementation of the European Directive 2003/53/EG, which restricts both the marketing and use of nonylphenols. Results from the analysis of additionally collected water samples from sewage treatment plant (STP) effluents indicate that the STPs cannot be the only sources for tech.-4-NP found in the river water.     

Seasonal and spatial distribution of nonylphenol in Shihwa Lake, Korea

Alkylphenols (APs) have been known as endocrine disruptors and consequently received much environmental concern. This study focused on seasonal variation and spatial distribution of nonylphenol (NP) in various matrixes including dissolved water, particulates, surface sediment, sediment trap and sediment core taken from Shihwa Lake and its adjacent areas. A total of 11 phenolic compounds including nonylphenol, t-octylphenol (t-OP) and bisphenol A (BPA) were measured in February, June and October 2002. NP is the most abundant chemical among the phenolic compounds and its concentrations in dissolved water, particulates and surface sediments from Shihwa Lake were measured as 17.4-1533.1 ng/l, 4.3-831.2 ng/l and 10.4-5054.1 ng/g dw, respectively. NP concentration in dissolved water varied with seasons and generally showed a decreasing order of June > October > February, while the seasonal trend was hardly found in sediment. High levels of NP were measured in surrounding industrial complexes, the concentrations was decreased gradually with distance from the industrial areas. NP in core samples showed an increasing trend toward the core depth. There exists a reasonable correlation between NP in dissolved water and in particulates, whereas the correlation between NP in dissolved water and in sediments is not significant. APs concentrations in Shihwa Lake were comparable to other highly polluted areas of the world and their possible effects on various organisms in the lake are discussed.     

Quantification of bisphenol A, 353-nonylphenol and their chlorinated derivatives in drinking water treatment plants

Bisphenol A (BPA) and nonylphenols (NP) are of major concern to public health due to their high potential for human exposure and to their demonstrated toxicity (endocrine disruptor effect). A limited number of studies have shown that BPA and NP are present in drinking water. The chlorinated derivatives that may be formed during the chlorination step in drinking water treatment plants (DWTP) exhibit a higher level of estrogenic activity than their parent compounds. The aim of this study was to investigate BPA, 353NP, and their chlorinated derivative concentrations using an accurate and reproducible method of quantification. This method was applied to both surface and treated water samples from eight French DWTPs producing from surface water. Solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography?Ctandem mass spectrometry was developed in order to quantify target compounds from water samples. The limits of detection ranged from 0.3 to 2.3?ng/L for BPA and chlorinated BPA and from 1.4 to 63.0?ng/L for 353NP and chlorinated 353NP. BPA and 353NP were found in most analyzed water samples, at a level ranging from 2.0 to 29.7?ng/L and from 0 to 124.9?ng/L, respectively. In most of DWTPs a decrease of BPA and 353NP was observed between surface water and treated water (36.6 to 78.9?% and 2.2 to 100.0?% for BPA and 353NP, respectively). Neither chlorinated BPA nor chlorinated 353NP was detected. Even though BPA and 353NP have been largely removed in the DWTPs studied, they have not been completely eliminated, and drinking water may consequently remain a source of human exposure.     

Phenolic xenoestrogens in surface water, sediments, and sewage sludge from Baden-Württemberg, south-west Germany.

Nine structurally different phenolic chemicals, which have been reported to mimic estrogen effects, were determined in various aquatic environmental compartments. Twenty-three water samples from five streams and rivers showed levels up to 458 ng/l for 4-nonylphenol (4NP), 189 ng/l for 4-t-octylphenol (4tOP), 272 ng/l for bisphenol A (BPA) and 47 ng/l for 2-hydroxybiphenyl (2OHBiP). Elevated levels of these compounds in a stream with a high load of effluents of sewage treatment plants (STPs), compared to a brook free of sewage, identified STPs as major sources. With a similar order, 4NP (10-259 micrograms/kg dry matter), 4tOP (< 0.5-8 micrograms/kg), BPA (< 0.5-15 micrograms/kg), and 2OHBiP (2-69 micrograms/kg) were also detected regularly in riverine sediment (n = 11). Levels in sewage sludge were one order of magnitude higher than in sediments. 4-Hydroxybiphenyl and 4-chloro-3-methylphenol were found predominantly in sludge and sediment in the lower ppb range.     

Bisphenol A concentrations in receiving waters near US manufacturing and processing facilities

Bisphenol A (BPA) (CAS 80-05-7) was analyzed in receiving waters upstream and downstream of US manufacturers (1996 and 1997) and processors (1997) during seasonal low flow periods. BPA was not detected (< 1 microgram/l) in any surface water sample in 1996 or at six of seven sites in 1997. Concentrations near the seventh site ranged from 2 to 8 micrograms/l; however, its receiving stream had no measurable flow and concentrations represent undiluted effluent. All surface water concentrations from this and other studies were less than the freshwater predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) of 64 micrograms/l, suggesting that BPA discharges from manufacturing and processing facilities to surface water do not pose an environmental concern.     

Occurrence of PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in the Tonghui River of Beijing, China

Tonghui River, a typical river in Beijing, People's Republic of China, was studied for its water and sediment quality, by determining the levels of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 18 organochlorine pesticides in water and sediment samples. Total PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides concentrations in water varied from 192.5 to 2651 ng/l, 31.58-344.9 ng/l and 134.9-3788 ng/l, respectively. The total PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides concentrations in surficial sediments were 127-928 ng/g, 0.78-8.47 ng/g and 1.79-13.98 ng/g dry weight, respectively. The results showed that the concentration of these selected organic pollutants in sediment was higher than those in surface water. It may be due to the fact that organic hydrophobic pollutants tend to stay in the sediments. The PAHs were dominated by 2-, 3-ring components in water samples and by 3- and 4-ring compounds in sediment. For organochlorines, alpha-HCH, delta-HCH, Heptachlor, Endosulfan II, DDT are the major organochlorine pesticides in water while Heptachlor, Dieldrin and DDE composed of 95% of total organochlorine pesticides in sediment. For HCHs (HCHs=alpha-HCH+beta-HCH+gamma-HCH+delta-HCH), the predominance of alpha-HCH of total HCHs were clearly observed in water and sediment. PCB18, PCB31 and PCB52 were predominant in water, on average these compounds collectively accounted for 67% of total PCBs. But in sediment, the predominant compounds were PCB28, PCB31 and PCB153, which accounted for 71% of total PCBs in sediment. The levels of micro pollutants in our study areas were compared with other studies.     

Leaching of bisphenol A (BPA) to seawater from polycarbonate plastic and its degradation by reactive oxygen species

In this study, (1) change in the concentration of bisphenol A (BPA) leached from polycarbonate (PC) tube to control water (BPA free), seawater and river water at 20 and 37 degrees C as a function of time, (2) the fate of BPA caused by addition of H(2)O(2) and Fe(3+) to seawater containing BPA leached from PC tube were assessed. BPA leached from PC tube to all water samples increased with the ascendant of temperature and with the passage of time. The BPA leaching velocity in seawater was the fastest in three samples (11 ng/day for seawater, 4.8 ng/day for river water 0.8 ng/day for control water at 37 degrees C).BPA leaching velocity from PC tube was significantly high at pH 8 (50 mM Na(2)HPO(4)) and increased dose-dependently. There was no difference in the velocity of BPA among the 50 mM phosphate-buffers at pH 6.5, 7.0 and 7.5. BPA was leached three times higher by addition of Na(+) than K(+). However, the higher the K(+) concentration, the larger the BPA leached from PC tube. Na(+) mixed with PO(4)(-) was effective on BPA leaching from PC tube, but not with SO(4)(-) or Cl(-). The results suggested that BPA leaching from PC tube would be attributed to the concentration of bibasic phosphate such as Na(2)HPO(4) and K(2)HPO(4) in water samples. BPA was degraded in both control water and seawater in the presence of radical oxygen species, but the degradation rate was lower in seawater than in control water, suggesting that anti-oxidative system exists in seawater. Neo-synthesized substance in both control water and seawater in the presence of reactive oxygen species was identified as BPA-quinone by LC-MS.     

A review on bisphenol A occurrences,health effects and treatment process via membrane technology for drinking water

Massive utilization of bisphenol A (BPA) in the industrial production of polycarbonate plastics has led to the occurrence of this compound (at μg/L to ng/L level) in the water treatment plant. Nowadays, the presence of BPA in drinking water sources is a major concern among society because BPA is one of the endocrine disruption compounds (EDCs) that can cause hazard to human health even at extremely low concentration level. Parallel to these issues, membrane technology has emerged as the most feasible treatment process to eliminate this recalcitrant contaminant via physical separation mechanism. This paper reviews the occurrences and effects of BPA toward living organisms as well as the application of membrane technology for their removal in water treatment plant. The potential applications of using polymeric membranes for BPA removal are also discussed. Literature revealed that modifying membrane surface using blending approach is the simple yet effective method to improve membrane properties with respect to BPA removal without compromising water permeability. The regeneration process helps in maintaining the performances of membrane at desired level. The application of large-scale membrane process in treatment plant shows the feasibility of the technology for removing BPA and possible future prospect in water treatment process.     

Perfluorochemicals in water reuse

Faced with freshwater shortages, water authorities are increasingly utilizing wastewater reclamation to augment supplies. However, concerns over emerging trace contaminants that persist through wastewater treatment need to be addressed to evaluate potential risks. In the present study, perfluorinated surfactant residues were characterized in recycled water from four California wastewater treatment plants that employ tertiary treatment and one that treats primary sewage in a wetland constructed for both treatment and wildlife habitat. Effluent concentrations were compared with surface and groundwater from a creek where recycled water was evaluated as a potential means to augment flow (Upper Silver and Coyote Creeks, San Jose, CA). In the recycled water, 90-470 ng/l perfluorochemicals were detected, predominantly perfluorooctanoate (PFOA; 10-190 ng/l) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS; 20-190 ng/l). No significant removal of perfluorochemicals was observed in the wetland (total concentration ranged 100-170ng/l across various treatment stages); in this case, 2-(N-ethylperfluorooctanesulfonamido) acetic acid (N-EtFOSAA), perfluorodecanesulfonate (PFDS), and PFOS were dominant. Though there is currently no wastewater discharge into the creeks, perfluorochemicals were found in the surface water and underlying groundwater at a total of 20-150 ng/l with PFOS and PFOA again making the largest contribution. With respect to ecotoxicological effects, perfluorochemical release via recycled water into sensitive ecosystems requires evaluation.     

Bioaccumulation of butyltins in Dreissena polymorpha at a confined placement facility in Buffalo, New York

This study involves a site characterization followed by biomonitoring with the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, at the Times Beach confined placement facility (CPF), located in Buffalo, NY. The contaminant of interest was tributyltin (TBT) and the degradation products dibutyltin (DBT) and monobutyltin (MBT). At study initiation (Day 0) TBT levels in the baseline mussels were 5.86 +/- 0.43 ng Sn/g, DBT levels were 2.25 +/- 0.37 ng Sn/g. No MBT was detected in the Day 0 baseline samples. Caged reference mussels placed back in the Black Rock Channel Lock and retrieved on Days 19 and 34 had TBT, DBT, and MBT levels which did not differ significantly from the Day 0 baseline levels. Mussels placed at the Times Beach CPF had TBT concentrations that were significantly lower at both Days 19 (3.65 +/- 0.90 ng Sn/g) and 34 (3.50 +/- 1.03 ng Sn/g) than the Day 0 baseline analysis (5.86 +/- 0.43 ng Sn/g). The results of this study indicate that butyltins were detected at the CPF site in the sediment (7.33 +/- 5.70 ng Sn/g) but not the water column (not detected at 0.01 microgram/l). In this study the zebra mussel was able to depurate TBT even in the presence of contaminated sediment. TBT may be bioaccumulated from the sediments. However, the initial levels in the mussels were so high, levels actually dropped as sediment-tissue equilibria levels were reached by the mussels.     

Distribution characteristics of nonylphenol in Jiaozhou Bay of Qingdao and its adjacent rivers

Nonylphenol (NP) is an endocrine disruptor and causes harmful effects including feminization and carcinogenesis to various organisms. Consequently, its contamination in natural waters has received wide concerns. This study aims to investigate the seasonal variation and contamination level of nonylphenol in Jiaozhou Bay of Qingdao and its adjacent rivers. A total of 10 phenolic compounds including alkylphenol, chlorophenol and bisphenol A were measured in water, suspended solids and sediments in winter (January), spring (April) and summer (July) of 2005. The results showed that nonylphenol accounted for the majority of phenolic compounds and that its concentrations in Jiaozhou Bay ranged between 20.2-269 ng l(-1), 17.1-77.5 ng l(-1) and 3.6-299 ng g(-1)dw in surface water, suspended solids and surface sediment, respectively. There existed a significant correlation between nonylphenol in water and in suspended solids. The concentration of nonylphenol in water varied with seasons and generally showed a decreasing order of July>April>January. The concentrations of nonylphenol in the adjacent rivers were much higher with the maximum of 28600 ng l(-1) in surface water. The spatial distribution of nonylphenol in Jiaozhou Bay was influenced by freshwater discharge from the adjacent rivers as well as current circulation system within the bay. The pollution level of nonylphenol in Jiaozhou Bay was comparable to other highly polluted areas of the world and its possible effects on local organisms were discussed.     

Characterization of trace organic contaminants in marine sediment from Yeongil Bay, Korea: 1. Instrumental analyses

Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine (OC) pesticides (HCB, HCHs, CHLs, and DDTs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alkylphenols (APs), and bisphenol A (BPA) were measured in 26 marine sediments collected from Yeongil Bay, Korea, in order to characterize their spatial distribution and sources. PCBs (2.85-26.5 ng/g, dry wt.) were detected mainly in the inner bay locations Mean OC pesticide ranged from 1.16 ng/g dry wt. for HCH to 0.05 ng/g dry wt. for HCB). PAH concentrations ranged from <10.0 to 1870 (mean: 309)ng/g dry wt., and were predominated 3- and 4-ring congeners. Concentrations of APs, such as nonylphenol, octylphenol, butylphenol (means 89.1, 4.61, 11.0 ng/g dry wt., respectively), were greater at locations proximal to municipal wastewater discharges. Concentrations of PCBs and PAHs were great near shipyards and industrial complexes. Vertical profiles of PAHs and APs indicated that they have been associated with sediments since the 1950s.     

Residue levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds in water and sediment samples from Nile branches in the Delta, Egypt.

Water and sediment samples were collected from eight different locations along the River Nile and its branches. Residues of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH's), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), DDT's, cyclodienes and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) were analyzed by GLC. Data on Grand Total (GT) concentration values pointed out that Rosetta Branch was more polluted with all components than Demietta Branch. Kafr El-Ziate was the most polluted location showing 1355.8 ng/L for water and 7396.9 ng/g for sediments, while Delta Barrage was the least polluted site. The concentrations of gamma-HCH were higher than the other isomers (alpha- and beta-HCH) in all studied sites. The results showed that HCB was the smallest pollutant at all locations on comparison with other chlorinated hydrocarbons. El-Mansoura, Rosetta and Kafr El-Ziate sites contained the highest concentrations of DDT's in both water and sediment samples. P,P'-DDE was dominate in all locations of water samples, but P,P'-DDT was in sediment samples. Also, the results showed the prominent presence of cyclodienes when compared with the other OC's compounds in sediment samples, especially Aldrin. Kafr El-Ziate was the most polluted location by PCB's, particularly the Ar1242. However, there were increasing levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the sediment samples parallel to percentage extractable organic matter (% EOM). Sediment/water ratios were calculated for all locations.     

Fate and assessment of persistent organic pollutants in water and sediment from Minjiang River Estuary,Southeast China

Persistent organochlorine compounds were analyzed in surface water, porewater and surficial sediment samples from Minjiang River Estuary, which is the first large river in Fujian Province, Southeast of China. The total concentrations of 18 organochlorine pesticides were 214.4-1819, 4541-13,699 ng/l, 28.79-52.07 ng/g in surface water, porewater and sediments (dry weight) respectively, and those of 21 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the three phases were: 203.9-2473, 3192-10,855 ng/l, 15.14-57.93 ng/g respectively. The results showed that the concentrations of these selected organochlorine pesticides and PCBs in porewater were higher than those in surface water. It may be due to the fact that these organic hydrophobic pollutants tend to stay in the sediments, and then re-suspend from the sedimentary phase to the upper water. We have analyzed the distribution characteristics of individual organochlorine pesticide components and PCBs, and found that alpha-HCH, DDE, Heptachlor, Endosulfan II, Methoxychlor were the most common organochlorine pesticides contaminants. Considering the groups of HCHs (HCHs=alpha-HCH+beta-HCH+gamma-HCH+delta-HCH) and DDTs (DDTs=DDT+DDD+DDE), the predominance of beta-HCH, DDE in all water, porewater and sediment samples was clearly observed. This observation suggested that beta-HCH was resistant to biodegradation and the DDTs had been transformed to its metabolites, DDE and DDD, of which DDE that was more un-degradable. The PCB congeners containing 3-6 chlorines had the great preponderance in the three phase. These results were compared with those present in other estuaries and harbors. A risk assessment was evaluated for the persistent organic pollutants in the Minjiang River Estuary.     

A spatial temporal assessment of pollution from PCBs in China

This research represents an assessment of the current state of pollution from polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in China. Various environmental media including sediment, water, organism and soil were analyzed and the spatial character of PCB pollution in each environmental medium was determined. On a national basis, PCB levels in all environmental media were relatively low, with little evidence of major contamination in China's main regions and rivers. However, there were some locations with high PCB concentrations. Sediments in Pearl River (83.1 ng/g) and its estuary (58.9 ng/g), Dalian Bay (58.1 ng/g) and Songhua River (36.8 ng/g) had relatively high level of PCBs. There were also some areas, which were mainly the industrial pollution sites or PCB equipment storage locations, remained seriously polluted with the highest PCB residue level of 150,000 ng/g. In addition, Minjiang Estuary (985.2 ng/g) and Taihu Lake (631 ng/g) had high levels of water pollution, while Pearl Estuary (635.7 ng/g) and Jiaozhou Bay (273.3 ng/g) had relatively high PCB levels in organisms. PCB pollution in soil was limited to a few special pollution areas with the highest PCB level of 4.5448 x 10(6) ng/g. Point source pollution was the common pattern of contamination, influenced primarily by local geographic, economic and historical factors. Analysis of PCB concentrations from the 1980s to 1990s shows an increasing trend, possibly due to the improper disposal of and leakage from PCB containers, chemical transfers, and the general rise of industrial pollution.     

Pollution survey of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface water of Hangzhou, China

The concentrations of 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were simultaneously measured for five times (July and November 1999–2002) in four water bodies of Hangzhou, China. To investigate possible sources of PAH contamination, sediments, soils, runoff water and atmospheric particles of the region were also analyzed for their PAH contents. The maximum levels of PAHs in the water bodies (34.4–67.7 μg/l) were found in July, while significantly lower PAH concentrations (4.7–15.3 μg/l) were measured in November. The contamination is substantial and it may have resulted in acute toxic effects on aquatic organisms. The measured PAH concentrations in sediments and soils (224–4222 ng/g), runoff water (8.3 μg/l) and air particles (2.3 μg/m³) are discussed in relation to concentrations and patterns found in the surface water bodies. Comparison of PAH levels in sediments and soils led to the conclusion that the erosion of soil material does not contribute significantly to the contamination of sediments. The atmospheric PAH deposition to water bodies in the city area of Hangzhou was estimated to be 530 tons/a, while the contribution of surface runoff water was estimated to be 30.7 tons/a. The ratios of selected PAH were then used to illuminate the possible origin of PAHs in the examined samples (petrogenic, pyrogenic).     

Occurrence of UV filter compounds from sunscreens in surface waters: regional mass balance in two Swiss lakes

Consumer care products often contain UV filters, organic compounds which absorb ultraviolet light. These compounds may enter surface waters directly (when released from the skin during swimming and bathing) or indirectly via wastewater treatment plants (when released during showering or washed from textiles). Predicted and measured UV filter concentrations were compared in a regional mass balance study for two Swiss lakes: Lake Zurich, a typical midland lake which is also an important drinking water resource, and Hüttnersee, a small bathing lake. Both lakes are extensively used for recreational activities and considerable direct input of UV filters is thus expected. This input was estimated from the number of visitors at swimming areas around the lakes and a survey of the usage of sunscreen products among these visitors. Possible additional indirect input via wastewater treatment plants was not considered in this study. The quantitatively most important UV filters, as indicated by the survey data, ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate, octocrylene, 4-methylbenzylidene camphor, butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane, and benzophenone-3, all lipophilic compounds, were selected for analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Concentrations of individual UV filters in water from Lake Zurich were low, ranging from <2 ng l(-1) (detection limit) to 29 ng l(-1), and somewhat higher at Hüttnersee, ranging from <2 to 125 ng l(-1), with the highest concentrations found in summer, consistent with direct inputs to the lakes during this time. The concentrations were clearly lower than predicted from input estimates based on the surveys. This may be in part due to (i) an overestimation of these inputs (e.g. less than the 50% wash-off of UV filters assumed to occur during swimming), and (ii) some removal of these compounds from the lakes by degradation and/or sorption/sedimentation. UV filters were also detected in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) deployed at Lake Zurich and Greifensee, another midland lake, at concentrations of 80-950 ng SPMD(-1), confirming the presence of the compounds in surface waters and indicating a certain potential for bioaccumulation. SPMD-derived water concentrations were in the range of 1-10 ng l(-1) and thus corresponded well with those determined in water directly. No UV filters were detected above blank levels in SPMDs deployed at a remote mountain lake used for background measurements.     

Photosensitized degradation of bisphenol A involving reactive oxygen species in the presence of humic substances

The photodegradation of endocrine disrupter bisphenol A (BPA) in the presence of natural humic substances (HS) under simulated solar irradiation was studied. BPA underwent slow direct photolysis in neutral pure water, but rapid photosensitized degradation in four kinds of HS, following pseudo-first-order reaction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formed from HS were determined, including OH, (1)O(2) and H(2)O(2). The enhancement of BPA degradation by adding Fe(III) was primarily attributed to the oxidation of OH produced from photo-Fenton-like reaction. And the joint effects of HS and nitrate ions coexisting on BPA degradation appeared to depend on respective concentration levels. The effects of dissolved oxygen suggested that the energy transfer between excited state of SRFA and NOFA likely occurred, while the abstraction of phenolic hydrogen atom to reactive triplet state of NOHA possibly took place. Based on the structural analyses of main intermediates and degradation products of BPA detected by GC-MS, the possible photodegradation pathways were proposed, involving the alky cleavage, alkyl oxidation and OH addition. This study gave a better understanding for the photochemical transformation of BPA induced by ROS generated from natural water composition under sunlight irradiation.     

Butyltins in water, biofilm, animals and sediments of the west coast of India

Biofilm, fish, oyster, mussel, clam, surface seawater, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sediment samples were collected from marine and/or estuarine waters of the west coast of India. These samples were analysed for butyltin derivatives such as dibutyltin (DBT) and tributyltin (TBT). The concentrations DBT plus TBT varied between 2.4 and 8.3, 163 and 363 ng/l, 5 and 2853 ng/g dry wt in the SPM, seawater and sediment samples, respectively, of the Marmugao harbour. The values of DBT plus TBT ranged between 0.60 and 29, 123 and 242 ng/l and 1.4 and 65 ng/g dry wt in SPM, water and sediment samples, respectively, collected from the Mandovi estuary. In the Dona Paula Bay the DBT plus TBT varied from 10 to 89 ng/l in surface seawater, and TBT from 10 to 513 ng/g in biofilm samples. For the coastal sediment samples the concentration of DBT plus TBT ranged between 36 and 133 ng/g dry wt of sediment. For the animal samples the DBT plus TBT ranged between 58 and 825 ng/g dry wt of the tissue. Mussel tissues contained the highest amount of DBT plus TBT (825 ng/g dry wt tissue), whereas highest TBT concentration was recorded in the oyster (732 ng/g dry wt). TBT was generally the most abundant butyltin compound in most of the samples suggesting fresh inputs and/or less degradation of TBT. A wide range of the observed butyltin concentrations suggests the presence of localized areas of contamination. Leaching of tributyltin-containing antifouling paints from the ocean going ships, fishing and recreational boats, barges, and the inputs of TBT from the Goa shipyard and dry dock facility situated in the harbour are the probable sources of the DBT and TBT in the samples of the west coast of India. Higher levels of TBT were observed in biofilm relative to that in the surrounding seawater. When fed on TBT contaminated biofilm of the diatom Navicula subinflata, butyltin concentrations in the clam Paphia malabarica increased over the period of feeding suggesting the importance of biofilm in the transfer of butyltins to higher group of organisms.     

Assessment of current serum levels of PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs and PBDEs in a Dutch cohort with known perinatal PCDD/F exposure

As part of a longitudinal cohort study, now in its second decade, we determined PCDDs/Fs dl-PCBs and PBDEs in serum of adolescents with known perinatal PCDD/F exposure. Of the original cohort, 33 adolescents aged 14-19 years, who had been studied previously during their neonatal (n=60), toddler and pre-pubertal period (n=41) agreed to participate in the current follow-up. PCDD/F-, dl-PCB- and PBDE congeners were measured using GC/MS. Current serum levels of PCDD/Fs determined in our cohort were relatively low (mean of 2.2pg/g) compared to the perinatal exposure. No correlation between perinatal exposure and current serum PCDD/F was found. Planar PCB TEQ levels were 2.2pg/g. Current summation operatorPBDE levels were 8.7ng/g lipid. There was one outlier with a summation operatorPBDE of 74ng/g lipid. The presence of this high value indicates that the exposure pathway is different from PCDD/F and PCB, most likely by dust and food contaminated with dust. Concluding we can say that current PCDD/F levels are quite low compared to the perinatal PCDD/F exposure of the cohort. PBDE levels however are relatively high compared to other European countries, more research on possible health effects of these levels, especially for subjects with outlier concentrations, should be performed.