Occurrence and suitability of pharmaceuticals and personal care products as molecular markers for raw wastewater contamination in surface water and groundwater

This study aimed to provide the first and comprehensive data on the occurrence of 17 target pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in urban water environment in Singapore. Meanwhile, this study also verified the suitability of these PPCPs as specific markers of raw wastewater contamination in receiving water bodies in highly urbanized areas where both surface water and groundwater are not impacted by the discharge of treated wastewater effluents. Analytical results of wastewater showed that among 17 target PPCPs examined, only 5 PPCPs were detected in 100 % of raw wastewater samples, including acetaminophen (ACT), carbamazepine (CBZ), caffeine (CF), diethyltoluamide (DEET), and salicylic acid (SA). Similarly, these PPCPs were found in most surface water and groundwater. Interestingly, the three PPCPs (ACT, CBZ, and SA) were only detected in surface water and groundwater in the sampling sites close to relatively older sewer systems, while they were absent in background samples that were collected from the catchment with no known wastewater sources. This suggests that ACT, CBZ, and SA can be used as specific molecular markers of raw wastewater in surface water and groundwater. This study also confirmed that CF and DEET were not really associated with wastewater sources, thus cannot serve well as specific molecular markers of wastewater contamination in receiving water bodies. To the best knowledge of the authors, the use of ACT and SA as specific molecular markers of raw wastewater contamination in urban surface waters and groundwater was first reported. Further studies on the use of ACT, CBZ, and SA along with other chemical/microbial markers are recommended to identify and differentiate contamination sources of surface waters/groundwater.     

Factors impacting on pharmaceutical leaching following sewage application to land

Sewage effluent application to land is a treatment technology that requires appropriate consideration of various design factors. Soil type, level of sewage pre-treatment and irrigation rate were assessed for their influence on the success of soil treatment in removing pharmaceuticals remaining after conventional sewage treatment. A large scale experimental site was built to assess treatment performance in a realistic environment. Of the factors investigated, soil type had the biggest impact on treatment performance. In particular, carbamazepine was very efficiently removed (>99%) when irrigated onto a volcanic sandy loam soil. This was in contrast to irrigation onto a sandy soil where no carbamazepine removal occurred after irrigation. Differences were likely caused by the presence of allophane in the volcanic soil which is able to accumulate a high level of organic matter. Carbamazepine apparent adsorption distribution coefficients (K(d)) for both soils when irrigated with treated sewage effluent were determined as 25 L kg(-1) for the volcanic soil and 0.08 L kg(-1) for the sandy soil. Overall, a volcanic soil was reasonably efficient in removing carbamazepine while soil type was not a major factor for caffeine removal. Removal of caffeine, however, was more efficient when a partially treated rather than fully treated effluent was applied. Based on the investigated pharmaceuticals and given an appropriate design, effluent irrigation onto land, in conjunction with conventional sewage treatment may be considered a beneficial treatment for pharmaceutical removal.     

Retention characteristics and balance assessment for two polycyclic musk fragrances (HHCB and AHTN) in a typical German sewage treatment plant

Measurements of two polycyclic musk fragrances HHCB (galaxolide) and AHTN (tonalide) were measured in wastewater and sludge of a German sewage treatment plant. The metabolite HHCB-lactone was identified and quantified in the same plant. The influent concentrations were about 1900 ng/l HHCB and 580 ng/l AHTN, while in the sludge about 3000 ng/g HHCB and 1500 ng/g AHTN were analysed. About 35% of both compounds passed through the plant unaltered and were discharged to the river. Slightly more HHCB was sorbed to the sludge than was discharged; while for AHTN about twice as much was sorbed to the sludge than was discharged. About 5-10% of the HHCB was oxidised in the plant to HHCB-lactone. The dominant processes in the STP were sorption processes, though.     

Occurrences of pharmaceutical and personal care products as micropollutants in rivers from Romania

The occurrence of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) was investigated in the Somes River. The aim of this study was to obtain a first overview about the contamination of Somes River (Transylvania) with PPCPs. The samples were preconcentrated by Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) procedures and analysed by GC/MS. A number of 15 compounds including pharmaceutics, metabolites, intermediates and musk fragrances were detected in concentration ranging from 30 ng/l to 10 μg/l. The detected pharmaceuticals are included in following therapeutic groups: analgesics, antiepileptics, psychiatric, stimulants, anticoagulants, antineoplastic and disinfectants.     

Accumulation and leaching potential of some pharmaceuticals and potential endocrine disruptors in soils irrigated with wastewater in the Tula Valley, Mexico

The reuse of wastewater for irrigation of agricultural land is a well established practice but introduces many contaminants into the terrestrial environment including pharmaceuticals and personal care products. This study reports the persistence and leaching potential of a group of acidic pharmaceuticals, carbamazepine, and three endocrine disruptors in soils from the Tula Valley in Mexico, one of the largest irrigation districts in the world that uses untreated wastewater. After irrigation of soil columns with fortified wastewater over the equivalent of one crop cycle, between 0% and 7% of the total added amounts of ibuprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac and between 0% and 25% of 4-nonylphenol, triclosan, and bisphenol-A were recovered from the soil profiles. Carbamazepine was more persistent, between 55% and 107% being recovered. Amounts in leachates suggested that movement through the soil was possible for all of the analytes, particularly in profiles of low organic matter and clay content. Analysis of soil samples from the Tula Valley confirmed the general lack of accumulation of the acidic pharmaceuticals (concentrations from below the limit of detection to 0.61 μgkg(-1)) and endocrine disruptors (concentrations from below the limit of detection to 109 μgkg(-1)) despite continual addition through regular irrigation with untreated wastewater; there was little evidence of movement through the soil profiles. In contrast, carbamazepine was present in horizon A of the soil at concentrations equivalent to several years of additions by irrigation (2.6-7.5 μgkg(-1)) and was also present in the deeper horizons. The persistence and mobility of carbamazepine suggested a potential to contaminate groundwater.     

The fate and risk of selected pharmaceutical and personal care products in wastewater treatment plants and a pilot-scale multistage constructed wetland system

The removal of 12 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in two full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and a tertiary treatment system was studied. The ecological risks of effluents from both secondary and tertiary treatment systems as well as excess sludge were evaluated. Primary treatment and ultraviolet light disinfection showed limited ability to remove most selected PPCPs. The combination of an anaerobic process and triple-oxidation ditches can eliminate DEET better than the anaerobic/anoxic/oxic process. Adsorption to sludge played a key role in the removal of triclocarban. Multistage constructed wetlands as a tertiary treatment efficiently removed caffeine and ibuprofen from wastewater and could decrease the risk of partial selected PPCPs. Selected PPCPs residues in excess sludge generally produced higher risks to the ecological environment than effluents from WWTPs.     

Evaluation of PPCPs removal in a combined anaerobic digester-constructed wetland pilot plant treating urban wastewater

The removal efficiency of 16 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from urban wastewater (dissolved and particulate phases) was evaluated for the first time in a hybrid pilot plant consisting of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor followed by two sequentially connected horizontal flow constructed wetlands: a surface flow wetland (SF CW) and a subsurface flow wetland (SSF CW). Whereas the PPCP removal associated with the dissolved phase exhibited a seasonal pattern, the fraction associated with the suspended solids showed less seasonality. In the dissolved phase, the overall removal efficiency in summer ranged from 70% to 85% for salicylic acid (SAL), methyl dihydrojasmonate, caffeine (CAF), ketoprofen and triclosan, whereas in winter it declined for most of the PPCPs to between 30% and 50%, except for CAF and SAL (>80%) and carbamazepine and butylated hydroxyl toluene (11-18%). In the suspended solids, the removal exceeded 80% for most of the target PPCPs. The efficiency of the different treatment steps was also compound-dependent, but the SF CW generally exhibited the highest removal efficiency for most of the contaminants analyzed. The characterization of the organic matter retained in the wetland gravel beds revealed the occurrence of hydrophobic contaminants such as phthalate esters and fragrances at moderate concentrations (i.e., up to 3.5 μg kg⁻¹), which declined strongly over the course of the different treatment steps. In the SF CW, the net mass accumulation rates of tonalide and galaxolide were 4 and 23 g y⁻¹ respectively, whereas in the SSF CW they were 0.3 and 1.8 g y⁻¹ respectively.     

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products found in the Great Lakes above concentrations of environmental concern

The monitoring of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has focused on the distribution in rivers and small lakes, but data regarding their occurrence and effects in large lake systems, such as the Great Lakes, are sparse. Wastewater treatment processes have not been optimized to remove influent PPCPs and are a major source of PPCPs in the environment. Furthermore, PPCPs are not currently regulated in wastewater effluent. In this experiment we evaluated the concentration, and corresponding risk, of PPCPs from a wastewater effluent source at varying distances in Lake Michigan. Fifty-four PPCPs and hormones were assessed on six different dates over a two-year period from surface water and sediment samples up to 3.2 km from a wastewater treatment plant and at two sites within a harbor. Thirty-two PPCPs were detected in Lake Michigan and 30 were detected in the sediment, with numerous PPCPs being detected up to 3.2 km away from the shoreline. The most frequently detected PPCPs in Lake Michigan were metformin, caffeine, sulfamethoxazole, and triclosan. To determine the ecological risk, the maximum measured environmental concentrations were compared to the predicted no-effect concentration and 14 PPCPs were found to be of medium or high ecological risk. The environmental risk of PPCPs in large lake systems, such as the Great Lakes, has been questioned due to high dilution; however, the concentrations found in this study, and their corresponding risk quotient, indicate a significant threat by PPCPs to the health of the Great Lakes, particularly near shore organisms.     

Occurrence and removal of six pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a wastewater treatment plant employing anaerobic/anoxic/aerobic and UV processes in Shanghai,China

The occurrence and removal of six pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) including caffeine (CF), N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), carbamazepine, metoprolol, trimethoprim (TMP), and sulpiride in a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Shanghai, China were studied in January 2013; besides, grab samples of the influent were also taken every 6 h, to investigate the daily fluctuation of the wastewater influent. The results showed the concentrations of the investigated PPCPs ranged from 17 to 11,400 ng/L in the WWTP. A low variability of the PPCP concentrations in the wastewater influent throughout the day was observed, with the relative standard deviations less than 25 % for most samples. However, for TMP and CF, the slight daily fluctuation still reflected their consumption patterns. All the target compounds except CF and DEET, exhibited poor removal efficiencies (<40 %) by biological treatment process, probably due to the low temperature in the bioreactor, which was unfavorable for activated sludge. While for the two biodegradable PPCPs, CF, and DEET, the anaerobic and oxic tank made contributions to their removal while the anoxic tank had a negative effect to their elimination. The tertiary UV treatment removed the investigated PPCPs by 5–38 %, representing a crucial polishing step to compensate for the poor removal by the biologic treatment process in winter.     

污水处理中几种去除药物及个人护理用品方法的机理及效果比较

目前广泛分布在环境中的药物及个人护理品（pharmaceuticals and personal care products, PPCPs）在环境中的迁移、转化和处理已成为环境科学与工程研究的一个新的领域。污水处理厂排水是PPCPs进入环境中的主要途径。介绍了污水处理过程中传统活性污泥法、膜处理技术以及氧化处理等主要工艺对PPCPs的去除机理，并对去除效果进行了比较。以传统活性污泥法及在其改进后的膜处理技术为基础的大部分现有污水处理厂只能够去除一部分PPCPs，并且主要通过吸附（如对于吐纳麝香、佳乐麝香、萨利麝香等脂溶性较高的有机物）和生物降解作用（如对于布洛芬，17β-雌二醇，雌酮等易反应的有机物）。然而，吸附了PPCPs的污泥通过土壤施肥又将PPCPs带入土壤中，进而会渗滤到地下水，或随径流水进入地表水中。因此，PPCPs并没有从根本上得以去除。相比之下氧化处理工艺（如氯化、臭氧氧化、紫外辐射）或这些工艺的组合能够将大部分的PPCPs进行氧化，去除效果明显优于以上2种技术。然而，氧化后产物的种类和毒理性需要更深入的研究。     

Environmental exposure of pharmaceuticals and musk fragrances in the Somes River before and after upgrading the municipal wastewater treatment plant Cluj-Napoca,Romania

Background, aim, and scope

Pharmaceutically active substances are a class of emerging contaminants, which has led to increasing concern about potential environmental risks. After excretion, substantial amounts of unchanged pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are discharged into domestic wastewaters. The absence of data on the environmental exposure in Eastern Europe is significant, since use patterns and volumes differ from country to country. In Romania, the majority of wastewater, from highly populated cities and industrial complex zones, is still discharged into surface waters without proper treatment or after inefficient treatment. In respect to this, it is important to determine the environmental occurrence and behavior of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewaters and surface waters. The objective of the present study was to investigate the occurrence of selected PPCPs during the transport in the Somes River by mass flow analysis before and after upgrading a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Cluj-Napoca, which serves 350,000 inhabitants and is the largest plant discharging into the Somes River. The concentrations of PPCPs at Cluj-Napoca can be correlated with the high population and a high number of hospitals located in the catchment area leading to higher mass flows. The results of this study are expected to provide information, with respect to the Romanian conditions, for environmental scientists, WWTP operators, and legal authorities. The data should support the improvement of existing WWTPs and implementation of new ones where necessary and, therefore, minimize the input of contaminants into ambient waters.

Materials and methods

The PPCPs were selected on the basis of consumption at the regional scale, reported aquatic toxicity, and the suitability of the gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method for the determination of the compounds at trace levels. The studied PPCPs, caffeine (stimulant), carbamazepine (antiepileptic), pentoxifylline (anticoagulant), cyclophosphamide (cytostatic), ibuprofen (analgesic), and galaxolide (musk fragrance), were determined in samples of the Somes River. The analytes were enriched by solid-phase extraction and subsequently determined by GC/MS. Caffeine, pentoxifylline, and galaxolide were determined underivatized, whereas the acidic pharmaceuticals carbamazepine, cyclophosphamide, and ibuprofen were determined after derivatization with N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide.

Results and discussion

The concentrations in the Somes River varied from below 10 ng/L up to 10 μg/L. A substantial decrease of the exposure in the Somes River could be observed due to the upgrade of the municipal WWTP in Cluj-Napoca. The loads in the river stretch between Cluj-Napoca and Dej (Somes Mic) varied strongly: caffeine (400–2,000 g/day), carbamazepine (78–213 g/day), galaxolide (140–684 g/day), ibuprofen (84–108 g/day). After the upgrade of the WWTP Cluj-Napoca, the concentrations in the Somes of caffeine, pentoxifylline, cyclophosphamide, galaxolide, and tonalide were significantly reduced (over 75%). One might be cautious comparing both studies because the relative efficiency of the WWTP’s removal of PPCP was not evaluated. However, the significantly lower concentrations of most compounds after the upgrade of the WWTP Cluj-Napoca allow one to infer that the technical measures at the source substantially reduced inputs of contaminants to the receiving river. Dej loads of the poorly biodegradable substance carbamazepine increased by a factor of 2–3 as a result of wastewater discharges into the river. The disproportionate increase in caffeine loads by a factor of 4 below Cluj-Napoca indicates inputs of untreated wastewater from the Somes Mare due to the discharge of untreated wastewater derived from Bistrita, Nasaud, and Beclean (115,000 inhabitants).

Conclusions

The relative contribution of treated and untreated wastewater in surface water might be assessed by measuring chemical markers. Recalcitrant pharmaceuticals like carbamazepine are suitable as chemical markers for estimating the relative contribution of wastewater in surface water. The easily degradable caffeine might be a good indicator for raw sewage and hardly treated wastewaters.

Recommendations and perspectives

Municipal WWTPs have the potential of a significant contribution in reducing the load of contaminants to ambient waters. The efficiency of the wastewater treatment in Cluj-Napoca improved considerably after the upgrade of the WWTP. Therefore, it is crucial that several WWTPs must be implemented or improved in the Somes Valley Watershed in order to reduce the discharge of contaminants in the Somes River from these point sources.

     

Ranking potential impacts of priority and emerging pollutants in urban wastewater through life cycle impact assessment

Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), a feature of the Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, is used in this work outside the LCA framework, as a means to quantify the potential environmental impacts on ecotoxicity and human toxicity of wastewater containing priority and emerging pollutants. In order to do this, so-called characterisation factors are obtained for 98 frequently detected pollutants, using two characterisation models, EDIP97 and USES-LCA. The applicability of this methodology is shown in a case study in which wastewater influent and effluent samples from a Spanish wastewater treatment plant located in the Mediterranean coast were analysed. Characterisation factors were applied to the average concentration of each pollutant, obtaining impact scores for different scenarios: discharging wastewater to aquatic recipient, and using it for crop irrigation. The results show that treated wastewater involves a substantially lower environmental impact when compared to the influent, and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are very important contributors to toxicity in this wastewater. Ciprofloxacin, fluoxetine, and nicotine constitute the main PPCPs of concern in this case study, while 2,3,7,8-TCDD, Nickel, and hexachlorobenzene are the priority pollutants with highest contribution. Nevertheless, it must be stressed that the new characterisation factors are based on very limited data, especially with regard to toxicology, and therefore they must be seen as a first screening to be improved in the future when more and higher quality data is available.     

Influence of ozone pre-treatment on sludge anaerobic digestion: removal of pharmaceutical and personal care products

The effect of an oxidative pre-treatment with ozone on the removal of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) during the anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge has been investigated. Besides, the digested sludge characteristics in terms of pathogens content, dewatering properties, heavy metals content and linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) were determined. During ozonation (20mg O(3)/g TSS), about 8% of volatile solids (VS) and 60% of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) were solubilized. However, no mineralization was observed. The elimination of VS and total COD during anaerobic digestion were not affected by ozone treatment with efficiencies ranging from 60% to 65%. All PPCPs considered were removed during anaerobic treatment of sludge, with efficiencies ranging from 20% to 99%. No significant influence of ozone pre-treatment was observed on PPCPs elimination except for carbamazepine. Pathogens, heavy metals and LAS contents after conventional and pre-ozonation treatment of sewage sludge were below the legal requirements. However, the dewatering properties of sludge were deteriorated when the ozone pre-treatment was applied.     

Accumulation and leaching potential of some pharmaceuticals and potential endocrine disruptors in soils irrigated with wastewater in the Tula Valley,Mexico

The reuse of wastewater for irrigation of agricultural land is a well established practice but introduces many contaminants into the terrestrial environment including pharmaceuticals and personal care products. This study reports the persistence and leaching potential of a group of acidic pharmaceuticals, carbamazepine, and three endocrine disruptors in soils from the Tula Valley in Mexico, one of the largest irrigation districts in the world that uses untreated wastewater. After irrigation of soil columns with fortified wastewater over the equivalent of one crop cycle, between 0% and 7% of the total added amounts of ibuprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac and between 0% and 25% of 4-nonylphenol, triclosan, and bisphenol-A were recovered from the soil profiles. Carbamazepine was more persistent, between 55% and 107% being recovered. Amounts in leachates suggested that movement through the soil was possible for all of the analytes, particularly in profiles of low organic matter and clay content. Analysis of soil samples from the Tula Valley confirmed the general lack of accumulation of the acidic pharmaceuticals (concentrations from below the limit of detection to 0.61 μg kg⁻¹) and endocrine disruptors (concentrations from below the limit of detection to 109 μg kg⁻¹) despite continual addition through regular irrigation with untreated wastewater; there was little evidence of movement through the soil profiles. In contrast, carbamazepine was present in horizon A of the soil at concentrations equivalent to several years of additions by irrigation (2.6–7.5 μg kg⁻¹) and was also present in the deeper horizons. The persistence and mobility of carbamazepine suggested a potential to contaminate groundwater.     

The occurrence of illicit and therapeutic pharmaceuticals in wastewater effluent and surface waters in Nebraska

The occurrence and estimated concentration of twenty illicit and therapeutic pharmaceuticals and metabolites in surface waters influenced by wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharge and in wastewater effluents in Nebraska were determined using Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Samplers (POCIS). Samplers were installed in rivers upstream and downstream of treated WWTP discharge at four sites and in a discharge canal at a fifth location. Based on differences in estimated concentrations determined from pharmaceuticals recovered from POCIS, WWTP effluent was found to be a significant source of pharmaceutical loading to the receiving waters. Effluents from WWTPs with trickling filters or trickling filters in parallel with activated sludge resulted in the highest observed in-stream pharmaceutical concentrations. Azithromycin, caffeine, 1,7-dimethylzanthine, carbamazepine, cotinine, DEET, diphenhydramine, and sulfamethazine were detected at all locations. Methamphetamine, an illicit pharmaceutical, was detected at all but one of the sampling locations, representing only the second report of methamphetamine detected in WWTP effluent and in streams impacted by WWTP effluent.     

Sorption and mobility of pharmaceutical compounds in soil irrigated with reclaimed wastewater

Use of reclaimed wastewater for irrigation is an important route for the introduction of pharmaceutical compounds (PCs) into the environment. In this study, the mobility and sorption-desorption behavior of carbamazepine, naproxen and diclofenac were studied in soil layers sampled from a plot irrigated with secondary-treated wastewater (STWW). Carbamazepine and diclofenac were significantly retarded in the 0-5 cm soil sample rich in soil organic matter (SOM): carbamazepine was not affected by the water quality (freshwater versus STWW), whereas diclofenac exhibited a higher retardation factor (RF) in the freshwater system. Naproxen exhibited significantly lower RFs than diclofenac but with a similar trend - higher retardation in the freshwater versus STWW system. In the 5-15 cm soil sample containing low SOM, naproxen was highly mobile while carbamazepine and diclofenac were still retarded. In the 15-25 cm sample, all compounds exhibited their lowest RFs. Sorption data suggested that SOM governs the studied PCs' interactions with the soil samples. However, higher carbon-normalized sorption coefficients were measured for the PCs in the 15-25 cm sample, suggesting that both quantity and the physicochemical nature of SOM affect sorption interactions. While both naproxen and carbamazepine exhibited reversible sorption isotherms, diclofenac exhibited pronounced sorption-desorption hysteresis. This study suggests that carbamazepine and diclofenac can be classified as slow-mobile compounds in SOM-rich soil layers. When these compounds pass this layer and/or introduced into SOM-poor soils, their mobility increases significantly. This emphasizes the potential transport of PCs to groundwater in semiarid zones due to intensive irrigation with reclaimed wastewater in SOM-poor soils.     

Fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment plants - Conception of a database and first results

We created a database in order to quantitatively assess the occurrence and removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). From 117 scientific publications, we compiled 6641 data covering 184 PPCPs. Data included the concentrations of PPCPs in WWTP influents and effluents, their removal efficiency and their loads to the aquatic environment. The first outputs of our database allowed to identify the most investigated PPCPs in WWTPs and the most persistent ones, and to obtain reliable and quantitative values on their concentrations, frequency of detection and removal efficiency in WWTPs. We were also able to compare various processes and pointed out activated sludge with nitrogen treatment and membrane bioreactor as the most efficient ones.     

The concentrations and distribution of polycyclic musks in a typical cosmetic plant

Polycyclic musks [cashmeran (DPMI), celestolide (ADBI), phantolide (AHMI), traseolide (ATII), tonalide (AHTN) and galaxolide (HHCB)] in the air, wastewater, sludge samples of a typical cosmetic plant were analyzed. DPMI, ADBI, HHCB and AHTN were found in all samples, and ATII was not found in any sample. HHCB and AHTN were the major components in all samples. The polycyclic musk concentrations were very high in the air of the cosmetic plant, and polycyclic musks were mostly contained in the gas phase at the percentage of 86.35-97.70%. Average polycyclic musk concentrations in effluent were high, and ranged from 0.62 to 32.06 microgl-1. The removal efficiency during the active sludge wastewater treatment was also high, resulting from the adsorption of those compounds into the sludge. So the polycyclic musk concentrations were very high in the primary sludge and second sludge, and ranged from 1.78 to 92.45 mgkg-1 (dry), and from 2.87 to 65.67 mgkg-1 (dry), respectively. Results suggested that the sludge needed to be further treated to make polycyclic musks less influence to the environment.     

Distribution and accumulation of endocrine-disrupting chemicals and pharmaceuticals in wastewater irrigated soils in Hebei, China

This study investigated the occurrence of 43 emerging contaminants including 9 endocrine-disrupting chemicals and 34 pharmaceuticals in three sites in Hebei Province, north China. Each site has a wastewater irrigated plot and a separate groundwater irrigated plot for comparison purpose. The results showed that the concentrations of the target compounds in the wastewater irrigated soils were in most cases higher than those in the groundwater irrigated soils. Among the 43 target compounds, nine compounds bisphenol-A, triclocarban, triclosan, 4-nonylphenol, salicylic acid, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, trimethoprim and primidone were detected at least once in the soils. Preliminary environmental risk assessment showed that triclocarban might pose high risks to terrestrial organisms while the other detected compounds posed minimal risks. Irrigation with wastewater could lead to presence or accumulation of some emerging contaminants to some extent in irrigated soils.     

Fate of selected pharmaceuticals in hospital and municipal wastewater effluent: occurrence,removal, and environmental risk assessment

The concentrations and distribution of β-blockers, lipid regulators, and psychiatric and cancer drugs in the influent and effluent of the municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and the effluent of 16 hospitals that discharge into the wastewater treatment plant mentioned in this study at two sampling dates in summer and winter were examined. The pharmaceutical contribution of hospitals to municipal wastewater was determined. The removal of target pharmaceuticals was evaluated in a WWTP consisting of conventional biological treatment using activated sludge. Additionally, the potential environmental risk for the aquatic receiving environments (salt lake) was assessed. Beta-blockers and psychiatric drugs were detected in high concentrations in the wastewater samples. Atenolol (919 ng/L) from β-blockers and carbamazepine (7008 ng/L) from psychiatric pharmaceuticals were detected at the highest concentrations in hospital wastewater. The total pharmaceutical concentration determined at the WWTP influent and effluent was between 335 and 737 ng/L in summer and between 174 and 226 ng/L in winter. The concentrations detected in hospital effluents are higher than the concentrations detected in WWTP. The total pharmaceutical contributions from hospitals to the WWTP in summer and winter were determined to be 2% and 4%, respectively. Total pharmaceutical removal in the WWTP ranged from 23 to 54%. According to the risk ratios, atenolol could pose a high risk (risk quotient > 10) for fish in summer and winter. There are different reasons for the increase in pharmaceutical consumption in recent years. One of these reasons is the COVID-19 pandemic, which has been going on for 2 years. In particular, hospitals were operated at full capacity during the pandemic, and the occurrence and concentration of pharmaceuticals used for the therapy of COVID-19 patients has increased in hospital effluent. Pandemic conditions have increased the tendency of people to use psychiatric drugs. It is thought that beta-blocker consumption has increased due to cardiovascular diseases caused by COVID-19. Therefore, the environmental risk of pharmaceuticals for aquatic organisms in hospital effluent should be monitored and evaluated.