Socio-economic dynamics of forest loss in rural agro-ecosystems

Summary Agro-ecosystems in many of the developing economies are coming under increased pressure, especially in areas where population demands, weak economic growth, and debt burdens, are resulting in mass rural poverty and assault on environmental resources. The loss of forests is a double-edge blow for most rural and agricultural systems. The forests provide the resource substitutes for the many manufactured products which are scarce or physically and economically inaccessible, and they also provide congenial environments which support rural food systems by way of productive agricultural land opportunities.In many of the rural areas of Africa, in particular, forest stability is more threatened, and this requires both local and external responses to make sustainable development a possibility. This paper, which is based on a field study in Ghana by the author, identifies emerging socio-economic constraints in woodfuel systems in environments where demands on forest ecosystems are high. The degree to which such local socio-economic processes affect stability of forest ecosystems, and the conditions within which the research information could assist planners and resource managers towards sustainable use of forest ecosystems are analysed.Dr William Y. Osei was born in Ghana where he obtained a BA (Hons) Geography from the University of Ghana. He subsequently obtained an MA from Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada and a PhD from the University of Western Ontario, London, Canada. With teaching experience in Geography at the Canadian universities of Western Ontario, Brandon and Victoria, he currently holds the position of Assistant Professor in the Department of Geography at Algoma University College.     

Environmental management in Greece and the challenge of sustainable development

Summary Environmental management is linked to decisions concerning sustainable development which peripheral countries would find quite challenging, given their development priorities and their demands for a restricted share in the burden of global environmental protection. This paper examines the Greek experience with the growing awareness of environmental problems in that country and in the light of current efforts to attain economic convergence with its northern European partners. The focus is on the analysis of the role of the political institutional system in sustainable development, embracing the government, the parliament and the political parties, the courts, and the local authorities. In addition, the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) is also summarized. The quest for sustainable development holds both positive and negative effects for Greece, and despite development priorities, there are some workable options available to follow a pathway of transition.graduate diplomas from the Institute of Business Management of the Graduate School of Economics and Commercial Sciences, Athens (Greece) and the School of Social Studies, University of East Anglia (UK), an MA in Economics from the University of Kent, Canterbury (UK), and a PhD in natural resources from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (USA). Dr. Lekakis served at the Centre of Planning and Economic Research (KEPE) in Athens for over 15 years, where he was in charge of the technical processing of Greece's five-year development plans in the area of environmental protection. He is currently on the faculty of the School of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Rethimno (Greece) where he teaches environmental and resource economics. His most recent research activity includes a just completed international water resource allocation project financed by the European Science Foundation (ESF), and an ongoing project on the institutional adjustment for sustainable development strategies in the European Union.     

A geomorphic framework for developing a sustainable greenery programme in arid environments

Summary This paper attempts to demonstrate that the study of geomorphology can provide a useful framework for understanding the natural processes and factors that are critical for the development of ecologically sustainable and economically viable greenery projects in the desert and arid environments.The surface of Kuwait was subdivided into 15 geomorphic zones and each zone was assessed in terms of its potentiality for establishing greenery activities. The assessment considered the implications of relief, soil type and fertility, aeolian processes, sand encroachment and presence or absence of indurated bedrocks and pavements for the greenery plan of Kuwait. Accordingly, areas with the most favourable conditions for revegetation were identified and strategies for enhancing the conservation value and sustainability of the greenery programme were outlined.The study pointed out that while the adopted approach provided useful environmental guidelines at the planning level, further investigations would be required, at the project level, if the principles of ecologically sustainable development were to be fully incorporated within such a large scale greenery undertaking.Dr Dhia Al Bakri is a Lecturer in Environmental Management at the Orange Agricultural College, University of Sydney, Australia. He worked as a Research Scientist for the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research from 1980 to 1990. During that time Dr Al Bakri undertook a wide range of studies and research projects within the context of Environmental and Earth Sciences.     

Impact of nigerian agricultural policies on crop production and the environment

Summary Nigerian efforts in agricultural development over the past three decades have failed to improve the country's economy. A review of the sector depicts a gloomy picture. Performance is reflected in environmental degradation, mounting food deficits, and decline in both gross domestic product and export earnings, while retail food prices and import bills have been increasing. These effects have further impoverished the smallholder farmers, locking them into a poverty web. The Government must seek to establish agricultural strategies which promote political stability, self reliance, public participation, sustained production and environmental security.Dr Gbadebo J. Osemeobo is a land use and conservation specialist working for the Nigerian Tropical Forestry Action Programme. He received from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, a BSc in 1976, an MSc in 1982 and a PhD in 1985. His research interests are in rural land use, habitat/biotic preservation, and environmental conservation. He has worked in various capacities with the Federal Department of Forestry; as Head of the Zugurma Sector of Kainji Lake National Park, 1978–1980; as Head, Regional Offices of the Federal Department of Forestry in Benin and Abeokuta, 1981–1989; and as a specialist in the Tropical Forestry Action Programme from 1990 to the present time.     

Policy conditions for sustainable agriculture in the Netherlands

Summary Sustainability as a goal is widely accepted and ranked high on the political agenda. Although the operationalization of this concept differs, the range of opinions shows a pseudo-consensus. Sustainable agriculture is defined in this paper as an agriculture that fulfils functions with regard to food production, nature and landscape, and the development of the rural areas now and in the future. This requires a set of ecological criteria for the agricultural sector. Besides the ecological aspects, sustainable agriculture has consequences for the economic, cultural and socio-political aspects of society. This paper concentrates on the socio-political conditions for sustainable agriculture. An important strategy for the realisation of sustainable agriculture is the stimulation of sustainable initiatives of (groups of) farmers, in particular on a regional level. The future perspectives of such a bottom-upwards approach are described by giving some examples of initiatives of Dutch farmers. It will be argued that the national governmental policy has to enlarge the scope for the development of farming practices.Dr Ing L.G. (Ina) Horlings studied land and water management at the Larenstein International Agricultural College in Velp before studying geography at the University of Nijmegen. She currently works at this university as a researcher and lecturer in the Department of Environmental Policy Sciences at the University. She is writing her thesis on agricultural policy. Her publications relate to environmental aspects of spatial research, farmer's initiatives and agricultural landuse.     

Volatilization of mercury from natural water by a broad-spectrum Hg-resistantBacillus pasteurii strain DR2

Summary A broad-spectrum mercury-resistant bacterial strain was isolated from contaminated water and was identified as Bacillus pasteurii strain DR2. It could volatilize Hg-compounds including organomercurials from its growth media. It utilized several aromatic compounds as a sole source of carbon. The bacterial strain eliminated HgCl₂ from sterile river water and the presence of benzene, toluene, naphthalene and nitrobenzene at 1 mM concentration in the system increased the rate of mercury volatilization, the volatilization rate being highest with benzene. When 1.7×10⁷ cells of this bacterial strain were added per ml of non-sterile water the bacterial strain volatilized more than 90 percent of mercury from mercuric chloride and organo-mercurials like PMA, thiomersol and methoxy ethyl mercuric chloride (MEMC). In the absence of this bacterial strain the volatilization of PMA and MEMC due to the presence of other Hg-resistant organisms in nonsterile polluted water ranged between 20–25 percent and of HgCl₂ was about 40 percent. However, in the presence of B. pasteurii DR2 volatilization of these Hg-compounds from non-sterile water increased by 20–40 percent. In the presence of 1 mM benzene the rate of mercury volatilization was even higher. In all the cases the rate of volatilization was higher in the first seven days than in the next seven days.Professor A. Mandal, MSc, PhD is Head of the Department of Biochemistry at the University College of Science, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road, Calcutta 700019, to whom correspondence should be addressed. His co-workers are Dr K. Pahan, Postdoctoral Associate, Department of Cell Biology and Paediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, USA; Dr J. Chaudhuri, Senior Lecturer, Department of Molecular Biology, BKC College, Calcutta, India; Dr D.K. Ghosh, Postdoctoral Associate, Department of Biochemistry, University College of Science, Calcutta, India; Dr R. Gachhui, Postdoctoral Associate, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, USA; and Dr S. Ray, Postdoctoral Associate, The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Biochemistry, Baltimore, USA.     

Environmental management training in Australia: A case study

Summary Environmental managers require education and training tailored to their particular professional needs. Specifically they need a range of technical (scientific) skills, human interaction skills and integrative skills. The Environmental Management programme at Deakin University, Australia provides much of this training through practical experience in real-life case studies. This paper presents an example of one of these studies undertaken by first year students. Students were required to undertake a research project into household activities which contribute to CO₂ emissions, and so to the enhanced greenhouse effect. The students were responsible for deciding what data was needed, how it was to be collected and analysed, and for drawing appropriate conclusions from the results. From the exercise they obtained useful information on the relative importance of various household activities to CO₂ production (use of cars and electricity topped the list).More importantly, they gained experience in project formulation, the interpersonal skills involved in teamwork, data analysis and interpretation, and working within tight time and budgetary constraints. A strong foundation for later development of the environmental managers' skills was laid.Dr David Stokes is the Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science at Victoria College, Australia. The following Victoria College staff also contributed to the production of this paper: Trevor Blake, Lecturer, Department of Heritage and Resource Management, Dr Geoff Wescott, Principal Lecturer/Head of Department of Heritage and Resource Management; Andrea Lindsay, Research Officer, Faculty of Applied Science; Andrew Treloar, Senior Lecturer, Department of Information and Numerical Sciences; Dr Trevor McKenzie, Senior Lecturer, Department of Applied Science and Dr Ian Dickson, Principal Lecturer/Head of Department of Information and Numerical Sciences. In January 1992 Victoria College merged with Deakin University.     

Sustainable development and automation: are they compatible?

Summary The ecological crisis is a result of modern industrial development and its negative impacts which are not conducive to the co-existence of essential diversities in the ecosystem. One of the major trends in present day industry is to move towards computer-based automation. This article discusses the compatibility of this trend towards automation with sustainable development which is regarded as the only viable choice to overcome the ecological crisis. After discussing the present day concepts of sustainable development, automation and the economic impact of automation on society, this paper argues that computer-based automation in industry is not conducive to sustainable development. It is also argued that the spread of automation will decrease the capability of mankind as a whole to implement environmentally sustainable programmes. Finally, the man-nature relationship which is the philosophical basis of the industrial paradigm is discussed. As pointed out by some comparative philosophers, the basic concept of human superiority and separation from nature has to change in order to have a harmonious integrity of life forms as complementary realities in this phenomenal existence.Satyabrata Pradhan is a Post Doctoral Research Fellow of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of British     

Reckless denudation of forest wealth in India

Summary It has been shown in recent surveys, that in India there is an upward trend in the area of open forest, which has grown from 10.06 million ha to 26.32 million ha in a few years. But the closed forests of India have registered a fall from 36.02 million ha to around 33 million ha. The latter fact is both significant and disturbing. It proves that in spite of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, the process of degeneration of forests, in India, constantly continues. It is obvious that a part of the open forests must have come from closed forests due to the reckless denudation of forests, carried out in the name of development. A massive afforestation/reforestation programme is desired to achieve the target of one third of the geographical area of the country to be under forest cover for proper ecological balance. India has to develop a sound National Forest Policy to meet the requirements of the country, to produce industrial wood, for forest based industries, defence, communication and other public purposes, and small timbers fuel wood and fodder for the rural community. In this context the decision taken by the Control Board of Forestry in December, 1987, is quite encouraging. It was resolved that the extraction of wood from the forests would be stopped and the country's need for timber and fuelwood would be met by importing wood and by means of farm forestry. The reconstitution of the National Wasteland Development Board and the planting target of 5 million ha p.a. are other positive steps in this direction. Extensive research is needed for a better and new approach to social and commercial forestry.Dr Om Prasad, the senior author, is a biologist in the Department of Zoology, University of Allahabad. He is responsible for developing a number of Environmental Biology Courses at graduate and post-graduate level. Besides being actively engaged in research on the adverse toxilogical effects of a number of commonly used food additives, he supports environmental protection activities including the provision of guidance to the Students Nature Club which is affiliated to WWF-India.Dr Pawan Kumar, after teaching for seven years in the Department of Forestry at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Bihar, recently joined the Department of Environment of the Government of India where he is in charge of a number of environmental projects. Dr O.N. Pandey is a specialist in Forestry teaching at Birsa Agricultural University, India.     

Sustainable development and environmental technology: a comparison of policy in Japan and the European Union

Summary The concept of sustainable development, is increasingly being proposed as a means to avoid the impasse between economic development and environmental protection. In this paper, the incorporation of the concept of sustainable development into policy-making in both Japan and the European Union is examined. A particular variation in response between the two has been in relation to encouraging the development of environmental or clean technologies, a key element in achieving sustainable development. The benefits of an early lead in environmental technology may result in gains to the economy. In this paper, the potential commercial gains from the integration of environmental policy with industrial, development are also examined.Dr David Gibbs is a Reader and Dr James Longhurst is Director of the Atmospheric Research and Information Centre within the Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences at Manchester Metropolitan University.     

Reconciling economic development,nature conservation and local communities: strategies for biodiversity conservation in Xishuangbanna,China

Summary The State Council of China has adopted Agenda 21for China and biodiversity conservation is one plank of its agenda for China's sustainable development. This paper offers a brief discussion of China's White Paper on Agenda 21 and examines, as a case study, the problem of sustaining biological diversity in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan. This area is rated as one of megadiversity, and therefore, as one deserving a high priority for conservation purposes. After discussing the general socio-economic obstacles to biodiversity conservation in Xishuangbanna, the article outlines the types of strategies adopted in China for reducing pressures of local communities on biodiversity and nature conservation. China's preferred strategy for easing pressures on biodiversity conservation in nature reserves is to improve economic opportunities outside of the reserves and raise the income levels of people living in the neighbourhood of the reserves. This approach has been adopted in Xishuangbanna and there are plans to extend it. Community development projects such as agroforestry, joint ventures in tourism and so on are being encouraged. Mechanisms for selecting suitable community development projectse.g. using rapid rural appraisal (RRA), are considered. Without economic development at the local level, plans for biodiversity conservation are unlikely to succeed in China or for that matter elsewhere in the developing world.Dr Clem Tisdell is Professor and Head of Department of Economics at the University of Queensland. Zhu Xiang may be contacted at The World Bank Loan Project, Ministry of Forestry, Beijing 100714, PR of China. This paper represents a revised version of an article presented to the International Conference: China's Economy Towards 2000, held at La Trobe University, Melbourne, 14–15 February 1995.     

Inchelium: non-sustainable resource dependency

Summary In order to consider appropriate sustainable development, it is first necessary to understand the problems of developments that are inappropriate for specific population groups. Variables, such as, the culture of the group, its historical experiences, demographic and economic resources, population density, and remoteness or urban proximity should be scrutinized. This is a case study of one population group with a history of resource dependency.Inchelium is a small Native American community on the Colville Indian Reservation in Washington, USA. The construction of a large dam ended fishing in Inchelium. Changes due to the dam have led to exploitation and degradation of the community's lifestyle. Several attempts at viable alternative economic development have led to disagreements about cultural and environmental issues. Lack of sustainable development has fostered a non-viable economy. In this economy half of the employable persons are unemployed, and 80 percent are dependent upon some form of government financial and service aid.These problems are related to the effects of colonization found on all North American Indian reservations. A dependency relationship with the federal government has resulted in qualitative changes in the use of natural resources, from subsistence to extraction.Dr Pamela Elkind is Department Chairperson and Professor of Environmental Sociology at Eastern Washington University. David Lundgren is based in the Department of Sociology at Stevenson College. This paper was first delivered at the Global Forum '94 Conference in Manchester, UK.     

Cost analysis of alternative methods for wastewater handling in small communities

Wastewater collection and treatment is quite important for sustainable management. It would be uneconomical and impractical to provide sewer systems and separate wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) for small communities. The decision process in wastewater planning is rather important in terms of comparing the alternatives considered. The two important points in the management of wastewater at rural areas not connected to a sewer system are to develop an optimized operation strategy and to make sure that the complete system is environmentally and economically sustainable. In some regions, package treatment could be an alternative solution. However, in cases where there is an existing large WWTP, a cluster system, where sewage generated by small communities could be transported via conveyors to a centralized WWTP, could be employed. In this study, the wastewater treatment and disposal problems in small communities were addressed and an alternative wastewater handling scenario was proposed. Additionally, three wastewater handling scenarios were compared. As a case study, Gebze villages were selected.     

Internalisation of externalities: Who bears the cost of pollution control?

Summary The impact of environmental regulations on the welfare of Malaysian palm oil growers, producers, and refiners are evaluated in an open-economy model. The estimated incremental effects of effluent standards and changes have been specifically rather small, with the exception of those upon the growers, but the cumulative effects have been considerable.Dr Khalid Abdul Rahim is a member of staff in the Department of Natural Resource Economics at the Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. This article is based on part of the work undertaken for his PhD dissertation at the University of Illinois, USA.     

An analysis of the himalayan environment and guidelines for its management and ecologically sustainable development

Summary The impacts of human activities on the bio-geophysical and socio-economic environment of the Himalayas are analysed. The main man-induced activities which have accelerated ecological degradation and threatened the equilibrium of Himalayan mountain ecosystems are stated as: unplanned land use, cultivation on steep slopes, overgrazing, major engineering activities, over-exploitation of village or community forests, lopping of broad leaved plant species, shifting cultivation (short cycle) in north-east India, tourism and recreation. Monoculture in forests, erosion and landslides have resulted in one–third of the total Himalayan land area becoming environmentally derelict. Cold desert conditions prevail in 41,500 km² of north-west Himalayas and are encouraged by traditional pasturalism. The geo-morphological conditions are major factors responsible for landslides which cause major havoc every year in the area. Other physical problems exist, such as eutrophication, drying up of the natural springs, the recession of the glaciers and changes in surface and ground water hydrology. Wild fauna, like musk deer (Moschus mischiferus) and the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), are now under threat partially due to changes in their habitat and the introduction of exotic plant species. Population pressure and migration are major factors responsible for poverty in the hills. The emigration of the working male population has resulted in the involvement of women as a major work-force. This work includes trekking for hours to collect fodder, timber and drinking water in addition to household duties. Guidelines, with special emphasis on the application of environmental impact assessments for the management of the Himalayas, are proposed.Drs Ahmad and Rawat are scientists, and Dr Rai is a research associate, at the Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development. Correspondence should be addressed to Dr Afroz Ahmad.     

Towards sustainable airport development

Summary This paper considers the application of the principles of sustainable development to an airport situation. If sustainable development is to be enshrined as the global development pathway which reconciles economic and environmental issues then it must be applicable to a range of spatial scales. Airports will interact at a variety of levels with this multi-level decision making and enactment structure. The requirements imposed upon an airport may differ according to whether decisions are being taken by local, regional or national decision makers. Conflicts and uncertainties will inevitably result. Definitions of sustainable development are considered and policy guidance from the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU) and the nation State level evaluated for its relevance to airport decision making. An attempt is made to reconcile definitions and interpretations before an idealized representation of a sustainable airport is presented. Mechanisms by which this may be actualized are then suggested. A need for improved theoretical knowledge is identified but research is also necessary on application and localization procedures for sustainable development.Professor James Longhurst is Head of Department of Environmental Health and Science at UWE, Bristol. Until recently he was the Director of the Atmospheric Research and Information Centre. David Gibbs is Professor of Human Geography at the University of Hull, UK. David Raper is Deputy Director and D.E. Conlan Environmental Projects Manager in the Atmospheric Research and Information Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.     

Environmental pressure groups and habitat protection in the developing world: The case of Nigeria

Summary Efforts to improve environmental protection in the developing countries continue to dominate the global agenda of environmental conservation for sustainable development. However, very little comment is made regarding the impact of the non-governmental agencies in conservation matters in the developing countries. This paper explores the nature and role of environmental pressure groups in environmental conservation in Nigeria, and discusses potential avenues of cooperation which might exist with external agencies seeking to support environmental protection efforts in the developing world through formal non-governmental channels.Dr Boyowa A. Chokor holds a PhD from the University of London. He is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Geography and Regional Planning at the University of Benin.     

Sewage as a resource: a case study of afforestation using sewage irrigation in Jaipur,Rajasthan, India

Summary Human beings use huge quantities of water every day for drinking, cleaning and various cultural functions and dispose of it as wastewater within sewage. With increase in population, the magnitude of this waste is multiplying enormously and beyond the recycling capacity of local ecosystems to become a major health and environmental hazard. Re-use of wastewater for afforestation purposes in the form of sewage silviculture combines the dual benefit of water conservation with environmental sanitation. Such experiments are being carried out at the World Forest Arboretum in Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. Biological treatment of the sewage before application, to improve its irrigational quality, to remove harmful chemicals and to prevent the risk of these passing into the human food chain is being undertaken. The aquatic weeds Lemna and Eichhornia are being used to purify the wastewater. The technique is both economically viable and ecologically sustainable.Dr Rajiv K. Sinha is assistant professor in Human Ecology at the University of Rajasthan.     

Agricultural land evaluation and site assessment in the United States: An introduction

The US Soil Conservation Service has developed an agricultural land evaluation and site assessment (LESA) system. The LESA system is being used by the US Department of Agriculture and other federal agencies to implement the Farmland Protection Policy Act of 1981. The LESA system and three case studies from the Pacific North-west are introduced in this article.Scientific Paper no. 7166, College of Agriculture and Home Economics Research Paper. Washington State University, Pullman, Washington. Project no. 0010.     

Accumulation of lead by the lichen

Summary The lichen Stereocaulon dactylophyllum,occurring on a metalliferous spoil tip, was found to accumulate various elements within parts of the apothecium, such as the subhymenium and the fertile hymenium. The hymenium was particularly contaminated by lead, and this may subsequently affect ascospore viability. Certain elements were present on the external surface of the thalli and apothecia; the percentage composition of the elements within the apothecium differed from that on the outside of the apothecium. Fourteen elements were recorded from samples of the metalliferous spoil, the subhymenium and the hymenium; the ranking of elements varied in the samples as also did the percentage contributions of the various elements. The lichen is an important accumulator of elements derived from various sources, including the atmospheric transport of particulates emanating from the spoil tip. It may be speculated that the elements, including the toxic ones, will subsequently be accumulated within organisms belonging to various trophic levels; rotifers which are present on both the apothecia and thalli are likely to be affected. Dr F. Brian Pyatt is Head of the Ecology Section in the Department of Life Sciences at Nottingham Polytechnic, where Mr D. Lacy is a member of the Department of Chemistry and Physics. Mr E.H. Beaumont was until recently in the Department of Zoology at the University of Oxford, and Mr D.M. Storey is a member of the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of Salford, UK.