海滨、森林环境中空气负离子分布特征及其与环境因子的关系

利用连续7年北戴河空气负离子观测实验数据,分别以气象站、金山嘴和联峰山测点代表城市绿化区、海滨、森林等生态环境。绘制空气负离子浓度变化曲线,分析空气负离子浓度与气候要素和大气污染物的相关性,并进行显著性检验。本研究旨在了解北戴河空气负离子分布特征及其与环境因子的关系,为当地的环境保护、为劳模疗养和旅游资源开发提供科学数据。研究结果,(1)空气负离子浓度年际变化起伏不大,7年的平均值为1 730 ind?cm~(-3),最高年份与最低年份相差535ind?cm~(-3)。(2)空气负离子浓度月变化中,8月份平均离子浓度为7 785 ind?cm~(-3),为全年最高,1月份为365 ind?cm~(-3),为全年最低。在空气负离子空间分布上,海边和森林空气负离子浓度明显偏高,海滨的年平均值为3 902 ind?cm~(-3),森林年平均值为5 403 ind?cm~(-3)。(3)按季节统计空气负离子浓度日变化,其特点是白天浓度明显小于夜间,最高值出现在夜间或早晨,最低值出现在中午到下午之间。(4)年际空气负离子浓度与年雨日数、年总降雨量、年雷暴日数、年平均相对湿度呈正相关;与年平均气温、年日照时数呈负相关,但空气负离子浓度年均值与气象要素年均值的相关性检验不显著。(5)空气负离子浓度与细颗粒物PM_(2.5)浓度呈负相关;与细颗粒物中的二氧化氮、二氧化硫、一氧化碳浓度呈负相关,而与臭氧浓度呈正相关,并通过显著性检验。(6)大气放电(雷雨)可以产生数量巨大的空气负离子。     

城市住区空气负离子浓度时空变化及空气质量评价--以合肥市为例

以夏热冬冷地区合肥市为研究区域,从建筑布局、空间形态、建筑密度、交通路网、植物绿化等方面综合考虑城市住区的不同环境特征,选择12个样点进行实地观测,于2013年8至2014年1月进行了空气离子浓度、风速、温度、相对湿度等指标的实地测定,并对数据进行筛选分析得出结果,空气负离子浓度随季节变化较为明显,夏季最高,平均浓度约为358/cm3,秋季次之,平均浓度约为338/cm3,冬季最低,平均浓度约为322/cm3。总体看来,上午9：00─10：00和下午14：30─15：30区间空气负离子浓度最高,上午10：30和下午16：00─16：30区间空气负离子浓度相对较低。②自由式布局和具有较明显开敞空间的测试样点空气负离子浓度较高。夏季样点9空气负离子浓度最高,平均浓度为815/cm3;秋季样点12空气负离子浓度最高,平均浓度约为483/cm3;冬季样点9空气负离子浓度最高,平均浓度约为407/cm3。最后运用单极系数和安培空气质量评价指数对住区空气质量进行评价,得出住区环境的空气清洁度以允许和清洁为主,等级多分布在D级和B级。根据这些结果和分析得出以下结论：在不同的季节,住区室外环境的空气负离子浓度变化较为明显,夏季最高,冬季最低。②影响城市住区空气负离子浓度最主要气象因子是风速、温度和相对湿度,其中风速和温度与空气负离子浓度呈现出正相关,而相对湿度则总体趋势不明确。③采取层次丰富的植物结构有利于提高环境的空气负离子浓度。④空气负离子浓度与空气清洁度有着密切关系,不同的环境特征下空气清洁度存在差异。⑤以空气负离子浓度为参考标准指导并优化住区建筑布局,不仅有利于提高住区人居环境质量评价工作的科学管理水平,同时对于提高居民的健康水平和营造健康舒适的居住环境具有重要的?     

城市住区空气负离子浓度时空变化及空气质量评价——以合肥市为例

以夏热冬冷地区合肥市为研究区域,从建筑布局、空间形态、建筑密度、交通路网、植物绿化等方面综合考虑城市住区的不同环境特征,选择12个样点进行实地观测,于2013年8至2014年1月进行了空气离子浓度、风速、温度、相对湿度等指标的实地测定,并对数据进行筛选分析得出结果,1空气负离子浓度随季节变化较为明显,夏季最高,平均浓度约为358/cm3,秋季次之,平均浓度约为338/cm3,冬季最低,平均浓度约为322/cm3。总体看来,上午9:00─10:00和下午14:30─15:30区间空气负离子浓度最高,上午10:30和下午16:00─16:30区间空气负离子浓度相对较低。2自由式布局和具有较明显开敞空间的测试样点空气负离子浓度较高。夏季样点9空气负离子浓度最高,平均浓度为815/cm3;秋季样点12空气负离子浓度最高,平均浓度约为483/cm3;冬季样点9空气负离子浓度最高,平均浓度约为407/cm3。最后运用单极系数和安培空气质量评价指数对住区空气质量进行评价,得出住区环境的空气清洁度以允许和清洁为主,等级多分布在D级和B级。根据这些结果和分析得出以下结论:1在不同的季节,住区室外环境的空气负离子浓度变化较为明显,夏季最高,冬季最低。2影响城市住区空气负离子浓度最主要气象因子是风速、温度和相对湿度,其中风速和温度与空气负离子浓度呈现出正相关,而相对湿度则总体趋势不明确。3采取层次丰富的植物结构有利于提高环境的空气负离子浓度。4空气负离子浓度与空气清洁度有着密切关系,不同的环境特征下空气清洁度存在差异。5以空气负离子浓度为参考标准指导并优化住区建筑布局,不仅有利于提高住区人居环境质量评价工作的科学管理水平,同时对于提高居民的健康水平和营造健康舒适的居住环境具有重要的现实意义。     

棕榈科群落空气离子的时空变化

以棕榈科植物群落为研究对象,通过研究不同结构群落的空气正负离子浓度的动态变化,探讨空气离子浓度时空变化规律。结果表明,棕榈科群落正、负离子浓度夏季>秋季>春季>冬季,7月正、负离子浓度达到最高值,分别为1 046 lons/cm3、1 089 lons/cm3;12月正、负离子浓度最低,分别为444 lons/cm3、455 lons/cm3,不同季节空气离子浓度的日变化均存在一定的差异。不同结构棕榈群落空气负离子浓度及空气质量等级的顺序为:乔灌草型群落>乔草型群落>乔灌型群落>对照地。     

北京地区不同植被类型空气负离子浓度及其影响因素分析

为研究城市内常见植被的空气负离子浓度水平及其影响因素,选取了北京市内几种常见的植被类型,以无植被覆盖的开阔地为参照对象,采用曲线图、散点图、回归分析等手段研究了不同植被类型的空气负离子浓度差异,并分析了外部环境对空气负离子浓度的影响。结果表明,(1)有林地区空气负离子浓度水平远高于无林地区,北京不同植被类型的空气负离子日平均浓度差异明显,5类样地的日平均空气负离子浓度波动范围在300~1 800 ion·cm-3之间,从高到低排序为:阔叶林针阔叶混交林针叶林灌木林无植被覆盖开阔地,且波动范围也逐渐变小,日平均空气负离子浓度分别达到了1 198、1 069、710、599、516 ion·cm-3。最高值一般出现在早晨或者晚上,最低值一般出现在中午。(2)空气负离子含量受天气变化影响显著,4种天气状况下的空气负离子浓度由高到低依次为:雷雨天晴天阴天雾霾天。(3)空气负离子浓度与温度呈负相关,回归方程为:y=-0.018 9x+40.157(r=-0.848,f=53.782,t=-7.334,P=0.001);与相对湿度呈正相关,回归方程为:y=0.058 0x+16.475(r=0.810,f=40.176,t=6.338,P=0.001)。(4)人类活动对空气负离子浓度影响较大,空气负离子浓度与人流量车流量均呈负相关,空气负离子浓度从中心城区向外逐渐升高,万泉河路、香山路、新平北路3个样地的日平均空气负离子浓度分别为:367、485、548 ion·cm-3。(5)空气负离子浓度室外明显高于室内。(6)空气质量与空气负离子浓度关系显著,空气负离子浓度与空气质量指数、PM2.5浓度均呈负相关。这些结果给城市绿地规划及大气治理提供了一些参考,并对后续进一步的研究做了铺垫。     

不同植被结构对空气质量的调控功能

随着城市化进程的加快,生态环境恶化,改善空气质量已成为社会所关注的重要环境问题。不同的植被结构可以有效调控大气颗粒物浓度,提高负离子的浓度,是改善空气质量的重要组成部分。为探究不同植被结构对空气质量的调控能力以及影响空气质量的因素,以沈阳市东陵公园为研究对象,采用定点观测法,监测8块不同植被结构内大气颗粒物(PM_(2.5)、PM_(10))和空气负离子浓度,并同步观测气象因子。研究结果表明,(1)不同植被结构调控大气颗粒物的能力存在差异,但是不显著。PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)日平均质量浓度在S1(稠李Padus avium+萱草Hemerocallis fulva)均为最高,分别是(48.63±18.05)μg·m~(-3)和(68.55±20.64)μg·m~(-3);S3(云杉Picea asperata+榆叶梅Amygdalus triloba+牛筋草Eleusine indica)最低,分别是(28.95±8.91)μg·m~(-3)和(45.21±10.38)μg·m~(-3)。PM_(2.5)和PM_(10)日平均质量浓度变化范围分别为(28.95—48.63)μg·m~(-3)和(45.21—68.55)μg·m~(-3)。(2)不同植被结构内空气负离子浓度存在显著性差异。空气负离子日平均浓度在S7(油松Pinus tabuliformis+桃叶卫矛Euonymus bungeanus+玉簪Hosta plantaginea)最高,为(1 007.50±53.10)ion·cm~(-3);S1(稠李+萱草)最低,为(446.21±34.9) ion·cm~(-3)。空气负离子日平均浓度范围(446.21—1 007.50) ion·cm~(-3)。(3)大气颗粒物(PM_(2.5)、PM_(10))和空气负离子浓度与乔木层郁闭度和相对湿度呈正显著相关,而与温度呈负显著相关;大气颗粒物浓度与空气负离子浓度呈负显著相关。以上研究结果可为优化城市绿地植被结构和改善空气质量提供一定的借鉴。     

北京西山国家森林公园中空气负离子浓度与气象因子的相关性研究

空气负离子(Negative air ions,NAI)是城市空气质量的重要指标之一,揭示城市森林释放NAI的影响机制,有助于充分利用NAI的净化作用及保健作用,并判断空气质量。利用北京西山国家森林公园2017年9月-2018年8月的NAI和气象数据,深入探究不同季节条件下和典型天气下影响空气负离子浓度(NAIC)的气象因素。结果显示,(1)不同季节条件下,NAI与气象因素相关关系不同。当温度在15℃以上时,NAIC与温度呈负相关;在15℃以下时,NAIC与温度呈正相关。多数情况下,NAIC与湿度呈反比,冬季湿度对NAIC负效应影响最明显(r=-0.503,P<0.01)。春秋冬NAIC与太阳辐射、气压均呈显著正相关关系,而夏季空气负离子与二者呈现负相关关系。(2)典型天气下,城市森林NAIC与晴天相比出现不同程度的差异,且与气象因子的相关性也不同。雨天条件下,NAIC日均值为2134ion·cm^-3,比晴天NAIC高4.56%,主要受温度和降雨量的共同影响;雾霾天与冬季晴天相比,晴天昼间NAIC为2075 ion·cm^-3,雾霾天昼间NAIC为1948 ion·cm^-3,主要受太阳辐射量的影响;大风天气下NAIC峰值比微风天气高5.37%,日均值大于微风天气,主要受气压的影响。     

基于空气负离子的生态用地健康效益评价

空气负离子不仅具有杀菌和清洁空气的功效,还能够增强心肌活力,促进新城代谢,对人体健康有益。因此,为表征生态用地的健康效益,在考虑植被覆盖度、优势物种数、叶面积指数、湿度、周边水域类型、前期降雨事件的基础上,引入空气负离子浓度指标,综合评价生态用地健康效益。以上海市24个生态用地为研究对象,2012年,选取空气质量较好的夏季,对空气负离子、正离子、植被覆盖度、优势物种数、叶面积指数、湿度进行同步监测,同时结合监测点周边水域类型、监测日期的前期降雨特征,利用主成分分析法(PCR)确定影响生态用地健康效益的主要成分,并对24个生态用地的健康效益进行评价。结果表明,在对生态健康效益有利的7项因子中,植被覆盖度在第一主成分中贡献仅略次于湿度,在第二主成分中贡献最大,系数分别为0.689、0.664。在24个生态用地中,海湾森林公园生态健康效益最高,其次是金山岛自然保护区、佘山森林公园,综合得分分别为1035.54、856.87和820.98;上海植物园相对最低,主成分得分为222.28。在此基础上,为探明空气负离子与各影响因子之间的关联性,以空气负离子为因变量,各影响因子为自变量,构建了上海夏季空气负离子浓度与影响因子之间的回归方程,其复相关系数为0.916,修正多重判定系数为0.816,可以表征24个生态用地各影响因素对空气负离子浓度关系81.6%的信息,回归方程检验水平Sig值为0.001,回归关系达极显著水平(P0.01),可作为上海生态用地夏季空气负离子浓度初步预测的依据。     

福州鼓山茶园不同生境空气负离子浓度及其影响因子

为研究福州市鼓山茶园不同生境空气负离子浓度空间分布规律以及空气负离子与其环境因子的关系,以茶园内7种生境作为研究对象,对各生境空气负离子浓度及环境因子进行测定。结果表明,茶园内7种生境空气负离子浓度由高到低为乔木群落高海拔茶园池塘有机茶园草地空地常规茶园,其平均负离子浓度分别为924、892、770、761、754、617、601个/cm3;在观测高度范围内(50~150cm),空气负离子浓度大致存在随海拔高度升高而增加的趋势,且150cm高度处空气负离子浓度显著大于50cm高度;各生境空气负离子与相对湿度呈极显著正相关关系,与温度、风速、气压及海拔相关性不显著;鼓山茶园空气质量总体较为清洁,各生境空气质量评价系数CI均在0.50以上,且空气质量评价系数CI值大致存在随海拔高度而增加的趋势。     

中国城市环境中空气负离子研究进展

空气负离子被誉为“空气维生素和生长素”,其浓度被列为衡量空气质量好坏的一个重要指标,对于城市空气质量的改善意义重大。综述了中国城市环境空气负离子研究方面的主要进展,对空气离子产生的机理机制、观测方法、时空特征、评价指标体系以及关键影响因子及其相互之间的关系等方面进行深入和系统的阐述。其中重点阐述了空气负离子与不同自然环境和建筑环境的关系。国内外主要研究结果表明,(1)不同环境场所下空气负离子浓度差别很大,呈现出由城市中心到郊区再到乡村逐渐增大的趋势。(2)空气负离子浓度的年变化和日变化均存在明显差异。(3)水体对空气负离子浓度影响较大,动态水的空气负离子浓度大于静态水,以瀑布为最大。同时离水体的距离越近,周边的空气负离子浓度越高。(4)空气负离子与风的关系最为密切,有风时空气负离子浓度高于无风时,且风速与空气中负离子浓度成正相关。其他因素如温湿度、天气状况、植物绿化、建筑材料以及建筑高度等都能影响空气负离子浓度的高低,从而影响城市环境的空气清新度,其中有研究者发现空气负离子能够降低空气中颗粒物的浓度,并与PM2.5的关系最大。这些研究为综合地指导和评价城市环境空气质量提供科学依据和设计思路。因此笔者结合中国城市化的进程,进一步提出了更多的想法：(1)在控制性详细规划的层面上,与城市设计和城市绿地系统等研究结合起来,开展周期性的空气负离子浓度实证研究。(2)尝试建立空气负离子浓度与城市住区通风关系的评估方法,为城市住区空气清新度与通风关系的评估做应用性基础研究。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles

Summary Undamaged plants emit low levels of green leaf volatiles (GLVs), while caterpillar-damaged and artificially damaged plants emit relatively higher levels of certain GLVs. Female braconid parasitoids,Microplitis croceipes, oriented to both damaged plants and to individual GLVs in no-choice tests in a wind tunnel, but seldom oriented to undamaged plants. Female ichneumonid parasitoids,Netelia heroica, also oriented to individual GLVs in a wind tunnel. Males of both wasp species failed to orient to the GLVs. These data show that leaf-feeding caterpillars can cause the release of GLVs, and that parasitic wasps can respond to these odors by flying upwind (chemoanemotactic response), which brings the wasps to their caterpillar hosts. This supports the hypothesis that plants communicate with members of the third trophic level,i.e., plants under herbivore attack emit chemical signals that guide natural enemies of herbivores to sites of plant damage. In this interaction, the GLVs serve as tritrophic plant-to-parasitoid synomones. That parasitoids from two different wasp families oriented to GLVs suggests that the response may be widespread among the Hymenoptera.Mention of a commercial or proprietary product does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.