Evolution of Sustainable Carbon Cycling Processes in China

Abstract

This report summarizes the surveys on carbon inventories and initiatives on sustainable carbon cycling taken by RCEES. The first part of this report deals with the concept of sustainable carbon cycling, the historical evolution of carbon cycling processes in China, carbon pool enhancement, value addition, carbon sequestration and carbon balance. The second part covers the modeling of carbon dynamics, emission inventories of various carbon-containing greenhouse gases and their potential abatement measures.     

Evolutionof Sustainable Carbon Cycling Processes in China

This report summarizes the surveys on carbon inventories and initiatives on sustainable carbon cycling taken by RCEES. The first part of this report deals with the concept of sustainable carbon cycling, the historical evolution of carbon cycling processes in China, carbon pool enhancement, value addition, carbon sequestration and carbon balance. The second part covers the modeling of carbon dynamics, emission inventories of various carbon containing greenhouse gases and their potential abatement measures.     

Emission Inventories of Carbon-containing Greenhouse Gases in China and Technological Measures for Their Abatement

Abstract

The report summarizes surveys on carbon inventories and initiatives on sustainable carbon cycling taken by the Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, where the authors work/worked. The first part of the report, which appeared in the preceding issue of this journal, deals with the concept of sustainable carbon cycling, the historic evolution of carbon cycling processes in China, carbon pool enhancement, value addition, carbon sequestration and carbon balance. This very paper, as the second part of the report, covers the results of carbon dynamics modeling, emission inventories of various carbon-containing greenhouse gases and their potential abatement measures.     

The accounting method and application of CO2 emissions responsibility by the electricity sector at the provincial level in China

When accounting the CO₂ emissions responsibility of the electricity sector at the provincial level in China,it is of great significance to consider the scope of both producers’ and the consumers’ responsibility,since this will promote fairness in defining emission responsibility and enhance cooperation in emission reduction among provinces.This paper proposes a new method for calculating carbon emissions from the power sector at the provincial level based on the shared responsibility principle and taking into account interregional power exchange.This method can not only be used to account the emission responsibility shared by both the electricity production side and the consumption side,but it is also applicable for calculating the corresponding emission responsibility undertaken by those provinces with net electricity outflow and inflow.This method has been used to account for the carbon emissions responsibilities of the power sector at the provincial level in China since 2011.The empirical results indicate that compared with the production-based accounting method,the carbon emissions of major power-generation provinces in China calculated by the shared responsibility accounting method are reduced by at least 10%,but those of other power-consumption provinces are increased by 20% or more.Secondly,based on the principle of shared responsibility accounting,Inner Mongolia has the highest carbon emissions from the power sector while Hainan has the lowest.Thirdly,four provinces,including Inner Mongolia,Shanxi,Hubei and Anhui,have the highest carbon emissions from net electricity outflow- 14 million t in 2011,accounting for 74.42% of total carbon emissions from net electricity outflow in China.Six provinces,including Hebei,Beijing,Guangdong,Liaoning,Shandong,and Jiangsu,have the highest carbon emissions from net electricity inflow- 11 million t in 2011,accounting for 71.44% of total carbon emissions from net electricity inflow in China.Lastly,this paper has estimated the emission factors of electricity consumption at the provincial level,which can avoid repeated calculations when accounting the emission responsibility of power consumption terminals（e.g.construction,automobile manufacturing and other industries）.In addition,these emission factors can also be used to account the emission responsibilities of provincial power grids.     

Carbon dioxide exchange in the photosynthetic apparatus of trees in a mature spruce phytocenosis of the northern taiga subzone

Carbon dioxide exchange was studied in the photosynthetic apparatus of Siberian spruce (Picea obovata Ledeb.), Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.), and weeping birch (Betula pendula Roth.) in a mature spruce forest. Parameters of CO₂ balance in different weather were characterized quantitatively on the basis of daily measurements of CO₂ exchange in needles and leaves of woody plants. The percent ratios of the components of carbon balance in needles and leaves of woody plants depending on daily photosynthetic fixation of carbon were determined. In summer, trees consumed 210 kg CO₂/ha (57 kg C/ha) in variable weather and 117 kg CO₂/ha (32 kg C/ha) in cloudy weather. Species specificity of CO₂ consumption was revealed, and the effects of environmental factors on the assimilatory activity of trees were determined.     

基于碳平衡核算的寒冷地区高校校园低碳建设策略研究

以校园碳平衡核算为主要技术手段的量化分析,能够目标明确的阐释校园内碳排放和碳吸收情况,根据碳排放量和碳吸收量占比制定相应的校园低碳减排建设策略,对高校今后的低碳化发展能够提供科学性、准确性的量化依据。本文考虑到碳排放因子的差异性,以实体项目作为分析基础,遴选与集成既有碳排放核算方法,进行了寒冷地区校园碳平衡核算。目标校园为山东建筑大学新校区,计算边界为山东建筑大学新校区空间范围内所有建筑和设施运行产生的、与学校日常事务相关的全部能源消费CO2排放。计算时间以2014年为参照基准年份,以2015年为主要计算年份。碳平衡计算结果表明:2015年校园碳排放量,建筑为20 051 t,交通为171 t,生活为6 576 t;碳吸收量中绿植固碳11 936 t,光伏固碳266 t,净排放24 596 t。校园碳排放系数为3.02,人均碳排放系数为1.04。分析核算数据,校园内碳排放量主要集中于建筑的日常运行用能排放,建筑用能排放中煤炭电力天然气,所涉及耗能用途主要为冬季采暖、空调、照明、热水及炊事。因此,这些用能成为影响校园碳排放的主要影响因素,据此提出高校校园碳减排策略,主要包括:基于碳平衡预测下的校园规划;遵从地域气候特征的生态补偿;建筑单体的低碳化设计与改造;设备系统的低碳化调适与更新;可再生能源的替代性应用。     

Emission Inventories of Carbon-containing Greenhouse Gases in and Technological Measures for Their Abatement

The report summarizes surveys on carbon inventories and initiatives on sustainable carbon cycling taken by the Research Center for EcoEnvironmental Sciences, where the authors work/worked. The first part of the report, which appeared in the preceding issue of this journal, deals with the concept of sustainable carbon cycling, the historic evolution of carbon cycling processes in China, carbon pool enhancement, value addition,carbon sequestration and carbon balance. This very paper, as the second part of the report, covers the results of carbon dynamics modeling, emission inventories of various carbon-containing greenhouse gases and their potential abatement measures.     

Emission Inventories of Carbon-containing Greenhouse Gases in China and Technological Measures for Their Abatement

The report summarizes surveys on carbon inventories and initiatives on sustainable carbon cycling taken by the Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, where the authors work/worked. The first part of the report, which appeared in the preceding issue of this journal, deals with the concept of sustainable carbon cycling, the historic evolution of carbon cycling processes in China, carbon pool enhancement, value addition, carbon sequestration and carbon balance. This very paper, as the second part of the report, covers the results of carbon dynamics modeling, emission inventories of various carbon-containing greenhouse gases and their potential abatement measures.     

Carbon cycle in spruce ecosystems of the northern Taiga subzone

The main components of the carbon balance have been determined in old spruce-bilberry forests of the northern taiga subzone. Annual carbon deposition in live phytomass and necromass has been determined by the weight method. Photosynthetic carbon binding has been calculated using the chlorophyll index, and the daily carbon balance has been estimated on the basis of direct measurements of CO₂ exchange. The results have shown that photosynthetic carbon binding by the phytocenosis amounts to 3.5–4 t/ha per year. Taking into consideration the litter yearly deposition decreased up to 1 t C/ha per year. With more than 70% of carbon accumulated in the organic mass being oxidized within the phytocenosis and returned to the atmosphere in the form of CO₂. Spruce ecosystems serve as a sink for 0.2–0.3 t C/ha per year.     

Analysis of interprovincial trade embodied carbon emissions in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and surrounding provinces: based on constructed MRIO Model

The interprovincial trade embodied carbon emissions plays an important role in the national emission reduction target among China’s provinces. Furthermore, it will affect the smooth start-up of the national carbon trade market as well as the implementation of targets in 2030 for dealing with the climate change. Based on constructed MRIO model, this paper analyzes the embodied carbon emission trade flows among Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei and surrounding regions such as Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Inner Mongolia. The results indicate that six provinces have formed different patterns of carbon trade balance, where Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei provinces are in a deficit position, while the other three provinces are in a surplus position. Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei have transferred part of the carbon emissions to the other three provinces, which shows greater heterogeneity among various provinces and provincial different sectors. On basis of the conclusions, this paper puts forward some suggestions on provincial decomposition, responsibility distribution, and provincial collaborative reduction for national emission reduction targets.     

中国试点碳市场监管机制研究与国际经验借鉴

2015年9月《中美元首气候变化联合声明》宣布中国将于2017年启动全国性碳排放交易体系以来,中国碳市场的筹建及7大试点的运行备受国内外媒体和学术界的关注。相关预测显示,中国碳市场届时将一举超过目前全球最大的欧盟碳排放交易体系EU ETS成为世界第一大碳交易市场,但由于7个试点运行时间较短、试点地区重视程度以及建设侧重点不统一等原因,目前中国碳市场存在着监管机构职责不清、监管体系不健全、监管政策不到位等一系列问题。本研究从监管机构、监管政策、技术支持平台、监管内容等方面梳理和分析了中国7个试点碳市场的监管体系,并将其与EU ETS、RGGI等国际上发展较为成熟的碳市场监管体系进行了对比分析后发现:1在监管手段方面,EU ETS与RGGI均侧重于依靠法律手段,而中国碳市场的监管手段则主要以地方性规范文件为主;2在监管机构职能方面,EU ETS的二级管理体系有效划分了监管范畴,保证了各级监管力度。RGGI的第三方独立监管模式则很好的保证了监管的公平性,充分发挥了碳市场事中监管作用,而中国碳市场则主要依赖于地方发改委来进行监管,存在职责划分不明晰等问题;3在监管重心方面,EU ETS侧重于对市场运行中的操作性风险和交易性风险进行防范,RGGI则更加关注交易风险的实时监控,而中国碳市场目前主要针对市场价格波动风险进行了防范。由此对中国即将建立的全国性碳市场监管机制设计提出了如下建议:1提高碳市场立法效力,完善监管政策体系;2平衡监管权力,成立专职监管机构;3加强过程监管,完善电子平台安全建设;4加大碳市场信息披露力度,鼓励公众及行业协会参与,形成外部监督机制。     

边境碳调节对中国EITE产业竞争力和碳泄漏的影响

碳市场碎片化状态使各国碳排放因减排力度差异而消长,不仅造成碳泄漏风险,同时对减排国家经济特别是排放密集产业的国际竞争力产生负面冲击。本文建立多区域多部门CGE模型,设计4种边境碳调节政策,模拟分析其对我国的福利、碳泄漏和出口型排放密集产业(EITE)竞争力产生的政策效应。研究显示,我国制定边境碳调节政策,既要考虑碳关税也要考虑出口返还,前者有利于改善我国的福利水平,后者可以收到抑制碳泄漏和保持EITE产业国际竞争力的效果,因而有必要把边境碳调节政策纳入我国碳市场制度设计。无论从产出还是贸易来看,我国EITE产业中的非金属矿、有色金属、钢铁产业在边境碳调节政策影响下,面临来自日本和亚洲其他国家的竞争压力,双方的碳泄漏和产业竞争力呈现此消彼长的动态变化。在我国碳市场建设过程中,边境碳调节政策与拍卖相结合,有利于在实现碳减排目标和维护产业竞争力之间实现平衡。     

Conflict and Coordination Problem of Carbon Tax＇ Diversity Targets in China-Based on the Tax Optimization Theory

Among all the emission reduction measures, carbon tax is recognized as the most effective way to protect our climate. That is why the Chinese government has recently taken it as a tax reform direction, In the current economic analysis, the design of carbon tax is mostly based on the target to maximize the efficiency However, based on the theory of tax system optimization, we should also consider other policy objectives, such as equity, revenue and cost, and then balance different objectives to achieve the suboptimum reform of carbon tax system in China.     

基于LMDI方法的中国国际贸易隐含碳分解

对国际贸易产生环境影响的定量研究正日益受到关注,特别是对隐含碳的研究.以中国2005年为例,对中国国际贸易隐含碳进行估算,应用对数平均D氏指数法(LMDI)对影响隐含碳净转移的因素进行分解分析.结果显示中国因生产排放碳量远大于其消费需要排放的碳量,从国外净转移到中国的隐含碳为395.66MtC;净转移隐含碳影响因素中强度效应(进出口商品完全碳排放系数差异)贡献率为60%,规模效应(进出额差异)贡献率为55%,结构效应(进出口结构差异)贡献率为-14%,此结果表明中国相比国外的高碳排放强度是造成目前碳转移额外增加的主要因素,分析结构效应发现中国主要净出口行业大部分不是高碳排放强度行业,而净进口行业却主要由高碳排放强度行业构成,特别是与碳排放密切相关的能源行业居净进口行业首位.     

中国城镇碳排放的区域差异和影响因素

修正了IPCC关于电力碳排放系数的计算方法,根据中国(省市)能源平衡表估算了1995-2008年中国30个省市的城镇碳排放,划分了高、中、低三个不同排放区域,分析城镇碳排放的区域差异,采用STIRPAT模型分析城镇碳排放及区域差异的影响因素.结果表明,城镇碳排放是中国碳排放的主体；城镇碳排放总体快速增长趋势,2001年后表现尤为明显;中国城镇碳排放存在很强的区域差异,2008年高排放区域的八个省市城镇碳排放总量占全国城镇碳排放总量的50％以上；城镇居民人均收入对城镇碳排放影响最大,然后是城镇化率和能源强度,人口总量对碳排放影响较小；城镇居民人均收入增加、城市化进程不断推进、能源强度降低对城镇碳排放的影响存在区域差异,这种影响强度的差异是导致城镇碳排放存在区域差异的主要原因.一方面,我国城镇居民收入的不断提高和城市化进程的推进决定了城镇发展需要一定的碳排放空间,另一方面,城镇需要走可持续的低碳发展道路.     

基于碳平衡的区域生态补偿量化研究——以长株潭绿心昭山示范区为例

在区域碳平衡的基础上，通过建立生态补偿中观尺度模型，对长株潭及其生态“绿心区”昭山示范区做生态补偿量化研究，并就生态补偿体制的建立和实现形式等进行了讨论。结果表明：长株潭城市群总体属于生态赤字区，其中长沙、株洲、湘潭3地均为生态赤字区，昭山示范区为生态盈余区；2008年长沙、株洲、湘潭3地应支付生态补偿资金分别为：4067、7934、7430万元，长株潭 “绿心区”昭山示范区应获得生态补偿资金1229万元，结余1 8202万元生态补偿资金；建议由长株潭生态补偿管理部门统一支配，用于统筹长株潭及其“绿心区”的生态保护与建设。研究以长株潭绿心昭山示范区为例，以生态固碳与区域碳排放为切入点构建生态补偿模型，力求为解决低碳社会建设过程中出现的区域间矛盾提供参考     

Soil redistribution rate and its relationship with soil organic carbon and total nitrogen using Cs technique in a cultivated complex hillslope in western Iran

The spatial pattern of soil redistribution rate was investigated using cesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) within a cultivated complex hillslope in western Iran. The relationship between soil redistribution rate and soil organic carbon and total nitrogen pattern were studied using co-regionalization analysis. Ninety-one soil cores were sampled for ¹³⁷Cs, total nitrogen, and soil organic carbon measurements. The simplified mass balance model estimated a gross erosion rate of 29.8 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and a net soil deposition rate of 21.8 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹; hence, a net soil loss rate of 8 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. This magnitude of soil erosion rate is higher than the acceptable rate in semiarid regions. Co-regionalization analysis and co-dispersive coefficients among the selected variables showed that only a small fraction of the variability in total nitrogen and soil organic carbon could be explained by soil redistribution and that the remaining might be the result of different management practices by local farmers.     

Carbon Budget Proposal： An Institutional Framework for an Equitable and Sustainable World Climate Regime

Consensus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions has been reached at the technical and political level.However,as the issue involves economic costs and the right to develop,the international institutional framework for addressing greenhouse gas emissions has consistently failed to balance the demands of impartiality and sustainability.However,a sustainable carbon budget proposal is undoubtedly achievable if the global carbon budget (the total amount of carbon permitted by climate security) is made an absolute constraint.If a preliminary distribution was made among the world’s population on a per capita basis,the total limited global carbon budget could not only meet basic needs but also ensure the proposal’s equitable.Taking into account historical emission levels and future needs,we should carry out carbon budget transfer payments and devise a corresponding funding mechanism to ensure efficient allocation under the proposal.Unlike the phase-by-phase progress and provisional goals of the Kyoto Protocol,the carbon budget proposal outlined above is a comprehensive and holistic package.Due to the politicization of the climate change issue,however,many technical issues can only be worked out through international political and diplomatic negotiations.     

The Carbon Cycle in the Ecosystems of Thermal Springs in the Chukchi Peninsula as a Natural Model of Warming

Comparative studies on the ecosystems in the vicinity of thermal springs and in the typical tundra were performed in the southeastern Chukchi Peninsula in July and August 1997. Biogenic carbon fluxes during the greater part of the growing season were determined, the aboveground phytomass structure was studied, and the carbon reserve in the soil was estimated. It was demonstrated that the gross primary production and soil carbon in thermal ecosystems are greater than in similar permafrost ecosystems. The structural and ecophysiological changes leading to an increase in the gross production of plant communities were analyzed.     

Conflict and Coordination Problem of Carbon Tax’ Diversity Targets in China-Based on the Tax Optimization Theory

Among all the emission reduction measures,carbon tax is recognized as the most effective way to protect our climate.That is why the Chinese government has recently taken it as a tax reform direction.In the current economic analysis,the design of carbon tax is mostly based on the target to maximize the efficiency.However,based on the theory of tax system optimization,we should also consider other policy objectives,such as equity,revenue and cost,and then balance different objectives to achieve the suboptimum reform of carbon tax system in China.