Biodiversity consequences of alternative future land use scenarios in Greater Yellowstone.

Land use is rapidly expanding in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, primarily from growth in the number of rural homes. There is a need to project possible future land use and assess impacts on nature reserves as a guide to future management. We assessed the potential biodiversity impacts of alternative future land use scenarios in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. An existing regression-based simulation model was used to project three alternative scenarios of future rural home development. The spatial patterns of forecasted development were then compared to several biodiversity response variables that included cover types, species habitats, and biodiversity indices. We identified the four biodiversity responses most at risk of exurban development, designed growth management policies to protect these areas, and tested their effectiveness in two alternative future scenarios. We found that the measured biodiversity responses, including riparian habitat, elk winter range, migration corridors, and eight other land cover, habitat, and biodiversity indices, are likely to undergo substantial conversion (between 5% and 40%) to exurban development by 2020. Future habitat conversion to exurban development outside the region's nature reserves is likely to impact wildlife populations within the reserves. Existing growth management policies will provide minimal protection to biodiversity in this region. We identified specific growth management policies, including incentives to cluster future growth near towns, that can protect "at risk" habitat types without limiting overall growth in housing.     

Legislating soil reconstruction on surface-mined land in the United States

The author, who participated with an interdepartmental team in advising the US Congress in writing the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, outlines the often conflicting requirements which determined the genesis of the Act. The paper also discusses the criteria for judging the effectiveness of restoring soil productivity and the emphasis on the restoration of prime farmland. It also notes that the nature of the balance between environmental protection, farmland productivity and the needs of coal are still uncertain and that there is a contradiction in US attempts to alleviate hunger while national soil resources are being destroyed.From 1972 to 1977, the author participated with an interdepartmental tcam that assisted the U.S., Congress in writing the Surface Mining Control and Reelamation Act.     

From meso- to macro-scale dynamic water quality modelling for the assessment of land use change scenarios

The implementation of the European Water Framework Directive requires reliable tools to predict the water quality situations in streams caused by planned land use changes at the scale of large regional river basins. This paper presents the results of modelling the in-stream nitrogen load and concentration within the macro-scale basin of the Saale river (24,167 km²) using a semi-distributed process-based ecohydrological dynamic model SWIM (Soil and Water Integrated Model). The simulated load and concentration at the last gauge of the basin show that SWIM is capable to provide a satisfactory result for a large basin. The uncertainty analysis indicates the importance of realistic input data for agricultural management, and that the calibration of parameters can compensate the uncertainty in the input data to a certain extent. A hypothesis about the distributed nutrient retention parameters for macro-scale basins was tested aimed in improvement of the simulation results at the intermediate gauges and the outlet. To verify the hypothesis, the retention parameters were firstly proved to have a reasonable representation of the denitrification conditions in six meso-scale catchments. The area of the Saale region was classified depending on denitrification conditions in soil and groundwater into three classes (poor, neutral and good), and the distributed parameters were applied. However, the hypothesis about the usefulness of distributed retention parameters for macro-scale basins was not confirmed. Since the agricultural management is different in the sub-regions of the Saale basin, land use change scenarios were evaluated for two meso-scale subbasins of the Saale. The scenario results show that the optimal agricultural land use and management are essential for the reduction in nutrient load and improvement of water quality to meet the objectives of the European Water Framework Directive and in view of the regional development plans for future.     

Arsenic in ground-water under oxidizing conditions,south-west United States

Concentrations of dissolved arsenic in ground-water in alluvial basins of Arizona commonly exceed 50 g L^–1 and reach values as large as 1,300 g L^–1. Arsenic speciation analyses show that arsenic occurs in the fully oxidized state of plus 5 (As+5), most likely in the form of HAsO4², under existing oxidizing and pH conditions. Arsenic in source areas presumably is oxidized to soluble As before transport into the basin or, if after transport, before burial. Probable sources of arsenic are the sulphide and arsenide deposits in the mineralized areas of the mountains surrounding the basins. Arsenic content of alluvial material ranged from 2 to 88 ppm. Occurrence and removal of arsenic in ground-water are related to the pH and the redox condition of the ground-water, the oxidation state of arsenic, and sorption or exchange. Within basins, dissolved arsenic correlates (P<0.01) with dissolved molybdenum, selenium, vanadium, and fluoride and with pH, suggesting sorption of negative ions. The sorption hypothesis is further supported by enrichment of teachable arsenic in the basin-fill sediments by about tenfold relative to the crustal abundance and by as much as a thousandfold relative to concentrations found in ground-water. Silicate hydrolysis reactions, as defined within the alluvial basins, under closed conditions cause increases in pH basinward and would promote desorption. Within the region, large concentrations of arsenic are commonly associated with the central parts of basins whose chemistries evolve under closed conditions. Arsenic does not correlate with dissolved iron (r = 0.09) but may be partly controlled by iron in the solid phase. High solid-phase arsenic contents were found in red clay beds. Large concentrations of arsenic also were found in water associated with red clay beds. Basins that contain the larger concentrations are bounded primarily by basalt and andesite, suggesting that the iron content as well as the arsenic content of the basin fill may play a role in the occurrence of arsenic in ground-water. Under oxidizing conditions in Arizona, arsenic in ground-water appears to be controlled in part by sorption or desorption of HAsO4² on active ferric oxyhydroxide surfaces.     

Comparison of Marine and Terrestrial Protected Areas under Federal Jurisdiction in the United States

Abstract: There is a significant disparity in the protection of terrestrial and marine environments in the United States. Despite the considerable literature dedicated to the subject of protected areas, both terrestrial and marine, in the United States, we are not aware of work explicitly describing this dichotomy. We compared marine and terrestrial areas under federal jurisdiction to provide a quantitative assessment of the differences between the conservation of land and sea in the United States. Specifically, we compared national marine sanctuaries (including sanctuary preservation areas and ecological reserves) with national parks, national forests, and national wildlife refuges (including national wilderness preservation areas). Our results suggest that marine sanctuaries are fewer in number, smaller in total area, and smaller in percentage of area covered than are terrestrial protected areas.     

A spatially explicit model to predict future landscape composition of aspen woodlands under various management scenarios

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) is declining across the western United States. Aspen habitats are among the most diverse plant communities in this region and loss of these habitats can result in shifts in biodiversity, productivity, and hydrology across a range of spatial scales. Western aspen occurs on the majority of sites seral to conifer species, and long-term maintenance of these aspen woodlands requires periodic fire. Over the past century, fire intervals, extents, and intensities have been insufficient to regenerate aspen stands at historic rates; however the effects of various fire regimes and management scenarios on aspen vegetation dynamics at broad spatial and temporal scales are unexplored. Here we use field data, remotely sensed data, and fire atlas information to develop a spatially explicit landscape simulation model to assess the effects of current and historic wildfire regimes and prescribed burning programs on landscape vegetation composition across two mountain ranges in the Owyhee Plateau, Idaho. Model outputs depict the future structural makeup and species composition of the landscape at selected time steps under simulated management scenarios. We found that under current fire regimes and in the absence of management activities, loss of seral aspen stands will continue to occur over the next two centuries. However, a return to historic fire regimes (burning 12–14% of the modeled landscape per decade) would maintain the majority of aspen stands in early and mid seral woodland stages and minimizes the loss of aspen. A fire rotation of 70–80 years was estimated for the historic fire regime while the current fire regime resulted in a fire rotation of 340–450 years, underscoring the fact that fire is currently lacking in the system. Implementation of prescribed burning programs, treating aspen and young conifer woodlands according to historic fire occurrence probabilities, are predicted to prevent conifer dominance and loss of aspen stands.     

Old-Growth Mangrove Forests in the United States

Criteria used to identify old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest have not been proven applicable in other ecological life zones. For example, Pacific Northwest criteria are not suitable for the identification of old-growth mangrove forests. To identify old-growth mangroves one has to take into account differences in stand structure and function due to geomorphology, within-site environmental gradients, and regional disturbance regimes. A flexible and holistic approach is needed. Stand age, defined in terms of Pacific Northwest forests, is not necessarily the best criterion for identifying for conservation mangrove forests or any forest outside the Pacific Northwest. No single stand will have all old-growth characteristics, and even if they are present in a stand, these characteristics do not necessarily assure that the stand is old growth. Whether a mangrove stand reaches old-growth stage depends on the dynamics of coastal conditions under which it grows. Moreover, it is necessary to differentiate between the age of trees in a stand and the age of the mangrove system, which includes the substrate. Old-growth mangrove stands are improbable states for this ecosystem type, and they can revert to younger stages. Mangroves offer a challenge to the concept of the old-growth forest, and through our analysis of this system we show that when ecosystem functions and states are evaluated it is necessary to avoid geographic biases based on particular ecological conditions.     

Status of Marine Mammals in the United States

Abstract: The 1994 amendments to the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act required, for the first time, an assessment of the status of every marine mammal stock in the United States. We draw conclusions about the status of marine mammals from assessments of 153 stocks conducted to meet the requirements of these amendments. We found important regional differences in the status of stocks. Most stocks in the Atlantic and Pacific experience human-induced mortality (takes), primarily from gill-net fisheries. The proportion of stocks with takes was lower in the Gulf of Mexico and Hawaii, areas with few gill-net fisheries. Estimated takes exceeded removal limits for 29% of stocks in the Atlantic, 14% in the Pacific, 8% in Alaska, 7% in the Gulf of Mexico, and 0% in Hawaii. Twenty-eight stocks are listed as threatened or endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Most, but not all, baleen whale stocks are recovering after cessation of commercial harvests. Many species of pelagic cetaceans, including beaked and sperm whales, are vulnerable to mortality in pelagic drift-net fisheries. Most pinniped stocks experience takes, but none of these takes exceeds removal limits, and all pinniped stocks on mainland coasts of the United States are increasing in abundance. Quantitative data on trends in abundance are available for few cetacean stocks, emphasizing the difficulty of monitoring trends in these species. These stock assessments have greatly advanced our understanding of the status of marine mammals in the United States, but information gaps remain, particularly regarding stock structure and possible mortality in unmonitored fisheries.     

岩溶山区不同土地利用方式对土壤活性有机碳动态的影响

对贵州茂兰自然保护区内三种典型土地利用方式(林地、草地和耕地)下土壤活性有机碳组分(土壤溶解有机碳和土壤微生物量碳)的月变化及其对环境因子的响应进行了研究,结果表明在不同的土地利用方式下上覆植被类型不同,其凋落物数量、质量及分解行为不同,有机质的输入量及质量也不相同,从而形成不同的土壤溶解有机碳含量差异,土壤有机碳的大小也存在较大差别。研究结果显示:从全年平均值来看,林地土壤溶解有机碳分别比草地和耕地高25%、48%;从3月到8月,三者均随气温的上升呈增加的趋势,林地和耕地在8月均达到最大值,而草地则在10月达到最大值;林地和草地土壤微生物量碳分别高于耕地81%和45%,林地和草地在10月达到最大值。不同的土地利用方式导致土壤活性有机碳的差异较大,这说明岩溶生态系统中土地利用方式对土壤碳库的大小有较大影响。不同土地利用方式下土壤活性有机碳对环境因子的响应也各不相同,这表明土壤活性碳受众多因素的制约而呈现出一种动态平衡关系,进一步的机理仍需要进行深入研究。     

Status of Species Conservation Banking in the United States

Abstract:  Receiving financial gains for protecting habitat may be necessary to proactively protect endangered species in the United States. Species conservation banking, the creation and trading of "credits" that represent biodiversity values on private land, is nearly a decade old. We detail the biological, financial, and political experience of conservation banking in the United States. We contacted agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and bank owners and compiled comprehensive accounts of the experiences of current banks. There are 76 properties identified as conservation banks in the United States, but only 35 of these are established under a conservation banking agreement approved by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The 35 official conservation banks cumulatively cover 15,987 ha and shelter a range of biodiversity, including more than 22 species listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Financial motives drove the establishment of 91% of conservation banks, and the majority of for-profit banks are breaking even or making money. With credit prices ranging from $3,000 to $125,000/0.41 ha (1 acre), banking agreements offer financial incentives that compete with development and provide a business-based argument for conserving habitat. Although the bureaucracy of establishing an agreement with the USFWS was burdensome, 63% of bank owners reported they would set up another agreement given the appropriate opportunity. Increasing information sharing, decreasing the time to establish agreements (currently averaging 2.18 years), and reducing bureaucratic challenges can further increase the amount of private property voluntarily committed to banking. Although many ecological uncertainties remain, conservation banking offers at least a partial solution to the conservation versus development conflict over biodiversity.     

Forecasting the Expansion of Zebra Mussels in the United States

Abstract:  Because zebra mussels spread rapidly throughout the eastern United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s, their spread to the western United States has been expected. Overland dispersal into inland lakes and reservoirs, however, has occurred at a much slower rate than earlier spread via connected, navigable waterways. We forecasted the potential western spread of zebra mussels by predicting the overland movement of recreational boaters with a production-constrained gravity model. We also predicted the potential abundance of zebra mussels in two western reservoirs by comparing their water chemistry characteristics with those of water bodies with known abundances of zebra mussels. Most boats coming from waters infested with zebra mussels were taken to areas that already had zebra mussels, but a small proportion of such boats did travel west of the 100th meridian. If zebra mussels do establish in western U.S. water bodies, we predict that population densities could achieve similar levels to those in the Midwestern United States, where zebra mussels have caused considerable economic and ecological impacts. Our analyses suggest that the dispersal of zebra mussels to the western United States is an event of low probability but potentially high impact on native biodiversity and human infrastructure. Combining these results with economic analyses could help determine appropriate investment levels in prevention and control strategies .     

Composition of Floating Debris in Harbours of the United States

As part of a programme to characterize floating anthropogenic debris in the aquatic environment, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted 18 field surveys in the harbours of major metropolitan cities of the east, west, and Gulf coasts of the United States and the Mid-Atlantic Bight. the surveys were designed to provide information on the types, relative amounts, and distributions of aquatic debris in different geographic regions of the United States. Neuston nets (0.33 mm mesh) were used to collect surface debris during outgoing tides on two or three consecutive days in selected areas of each city. After each net tow, the debris, which ranged in size from small resin pellets to large plastic sheeting pieces, was identified, categorized, and counted. the data are being used to qualitatively characterize aquatic debris in coastal metropolitan areas, to examine potential regional variations, and to tentatively identify potential sources.     

Composition of Floating Debris in Harbours of the United States

As part of a programme to characterize floating anthropogenic debris in the aquatic environment, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted 18 field surveys in the harbours of major metropolitan cities of the east, west, and Gulf coasts of the United States and the Mid-Atlantic Bight. the surveys were designed to provide information on the types, relative amounts, and distributions of aquatic debris in different geographic regions of the United States. Neuston nets (0.33 mm mesh) were used to collect surface debris during outgoing tides on two or three consecutive days in selected areas of each city. After each net tow, the debris, which ranged in size from small resin pellets to large plastic sheeting pieces, was identified, categorized, and counted. the data are being used to qualitatively characterize aquatic debris in coastal metropolitan areas, to examine potential regional variations, and to tentatively identify potential sources.     

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Endangered Species Hotspots in the United States

Abstract: Given limited resources, many researchers advocate focusing conservation efforts on hotspots, geographical areas with high numbers of species (i.e., richness), endemic species, rare or threatened species, and/or high levels of threat to species survival. The hotspot approach is an efficient and simple way to conserve species diversity, assuming that hotspots do not change over space or time. We tested whether hotspots change across space and time using a database of endangered and threatened species listed by the U.S. government from 1967 to 1999. We determined hotspots based on the cumulative set of species listed for three overlapping and successively longer time periods: 1967–1979, 1967–1989, and 1967–1999. We used minimum area complimentarity analysis, which selected the smallest set of areas (in our study, U.S. counties) needed to represent a chosen set of species. Over time, the number of endangered and threatened species in the United States increased from 76 in 1967 to 1123 in 1999. As the number of species increased over time, hotspots changed in two ways: the number of hotspots increased and the rank of hotspots shifted. Hotspots increased from 84 in 1979, to 166 in 1989, to 217 in 1999. Only 63 of these counties were designated as hotspots in all three periods. The remaining changes resulted from addition and deletion of counties as hotspots over time. Some counties were removed from the list or changed in relative rank from one time period to the next regardless of their rank. Counties added as hotspots could rank anywhere on the list, and they were not merely low-ranking counties added to represent one or a few species. Therefore, hotspots serve as a useful tool for guiding conservation efforts but, given their spatiotemporal variability, do not represent a final solution.     

科尔沁沙地土地利用变化对土壤特性的影响

在中国科学院奈曼沙漠化研究站放牧试验场周围,选取了不同利用方式和类型的草地（封育和放牧）、林地（乔木和灌木）和农田（灌溉和非灌溉）为研究样地,调查了0～30cm土层每隔10cm的土壤水分质量分数和有机养分（有机碳和全氮）,分析了土地利用变化对土壤水分质量分数和有机养分的影响。结果发现,垂直空间分布上,无论哪种土地类型样地,土壤水分质量分数和有机养分各土层间均无显著差异性（P〉0.05）,土层垂直变化对土壤特性影响均较小。在不同土地利用方式水平空间分布上,土壤水分质量分数和有机养分（土壤有机碳和全氮）灌木林地均显著高于乔木林地（P〈0.05）,而封育草地和放牧草地间以及灌溉农田与非灌溉农田间土壤水分质量分数和有机养分均无显著差异性（P〉0.05）。不同土地利用类型水平分布上,草地土壤水分质量分数显著低于林地和农田（P〈0.05）,而土壤养分质量分数草地显著高于林地和农田（P〈0.05）。分析表明,对沙质草地进行围栏封育和旱作农田退耕还林还草的同时,对水浇农田实行保护性耕作和精细管理,有利于沙地土壤环境改善与生态系统恢复。     

土地利用变化对生物多样性的影响

土地利用变化对生物多样性影响是生物多样性受到威胁的重要因素.文章对土地利用变化对基因多样性、物种多样性、生态系统多样性影响方面的研究进行了总结分析,并提出了新的展望.土地利用变化对基因多样性的影响涉及了对物种生境的隔离、农牧业活动对物种改良和生境条件的改变方面,目前还主要集中在对少数物种繁殖过程方面影响的研究;土地利用变化对物种多样性影响包括对物种优势度和丰富度、种间关系、物种分布格局、物种入侵和灭绝方面的影响,目前对物种丰富性和多样性影响方面研究较多,对物种灭绝、物种入侵和种间关系影响方面的研究极少,且还限于大型动物和植物,对微生物和小型动植物研究却很少;土地利用变化对生态系统的影响涉及了对生态系统结构组成及分布方面的影响.另外,目前缺少土地利用变化对基因多样性、物种多样性和生态系统多样性综合影响方面的研究,难以量化和预测土地利用变化对生物多样性影响效应.未来需要综合考虑基因多样性、物种多样性和生态系统多样性方面,系统开展土地利用变化对生物多样性影响的趋势和机制方面的研究,定量预测土地利用变化对生物多样性的影响.     

Obligate Cave Fauna of the 48 Contiguous United States

Abstract: We assembled a list of obligate cave-dwelling species and subspecies, their county distribution, and their provisional global conservation rank. A total of 927 species and 46 additional subspecies in 96 families exclusively from cave and associated subterranean habitats have been described in the 48 contiguous states of the United States. The terrestrial (troglobitic) species are concentrated in northeast Alabama (especially Jackson County), with other concentrations in Kentucky, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Only 23 counties, comprising less than 1% of the land area of the 48 contiguous states, account for over 50% of the terrestrial species and subspecies. The aquatic (stygobitic) species are concentrated in Hays County, Texas, with other concentrations in Florida, Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Only 18 counties, comprising less than 1% of the land area, account for over 50% of the aquatic species and subspecies. Endemism is high, with 54% of the species known from a single county. Approximately 95% of the species are listed by The Nature Conservancy as vulnerable or imperiled in the United States. These cave species comprise 50% of all vulnerable or imperiled species listed in databases of the Natural Heritage Program. Less than 4% of these subterranean species have federal status. Conservation can best be accomplished through habitat protection, which must include protection of the associated surface habitat.