森林凋落物分解研究进展

森林凋落物是指森林生态系统内由生物组分产生,然后归还到林地表面的所有有机物质的总称。森林凋落物在促进森林生态系统正常的物质循环和养分平衡,维持生态系统功能中具有重要作用,其分解受多因素影响,且各因素之间相互交错。不同情况下,各因子的重要性可能不同。温度和湿度被认为是影响凋落物分解主要的气候因子。凋落物随着温度升高分解速率加快,增加土壤湿度对凋落物分解有积极作用。凋落物的化学性质中,C、N比和木质素含量被认为是最重要的指标。凋落物分解前期的分解速率受到养分含量、水溶性碳化合物和结构碳化合物含量的强烈影响,而后期则更多地受到木质素及纤维素/木质素比值的支配。土壤动物可以粉碎凋落物,土壤微生物也是促进凋落物分解的重要因素,人为活动也影响凋落物分解。N沉降、全球变暖和臭氧层破坏等全球变化对森林凋落物分解的影响已逐渐成为研究热点。未来凋落物分解的研究方向是统一研究方法,开展长期定位监测,加强对分解过程中有机碳含量和释放量的研究,以及N沉降对凋落物分解作用机理的研究。     

森林凋落物分解研究进展

森林凋落物是指森林生态系统内由生物组分产生,然后归还到林地表面的所有有机物质的总称。森林凋落物在促进森林生态系统正常的物质循环和养分平衡,维持生态系统功能中具有重要作用,其分解受多因素影响,且各因素之间相互交错。不同情况下,各因子的重要性可能不同。温度和湿度被认为是影响凋落物分解主要的气候因子。凋落物随着温度升高分解速率加快,增加土壤湿度对凋落物分解有积极作用。凋落物的化学性质中,C、N比和木质素含量被认为是最重要的指标。凋落物分解前期的分解速率受到养分含量、水溶性碳化合物和结构碳化合物含量的强烈影响,而后期则更多地受到木质索及纤维素／木质素比值的支配。土壤动物可以粉碎凋落物,土壤微生物也是促进凋落物分解的重要因素,人为活动也影响凋落物分解。N沉降、全球变暖和臭氧层破坏等全球变化对森林凋落物分解的影响已逐渐成为研究热点。未来凋落物分解的研究方向是统一研究方法,开展长期定位监测,加强对分解过程中有机碳含量和释放量的研究,以及N沉降对凋落物分解作用机理的研究。     

黄土台塬不同土地利用方式下土壤有机碳分解特性

为了探讨土地利用方式对土壤有机碳分解的影响,以黄土台塬的乔木林地、灌木林地、天然草地和耕地等不同植被类型土壤为研究对象,对土壤有机碳矿化分解特征进行分析。结果表明,不同土地利用方式下土壤有机碳含量、有机碳密度、土壤可矿化碳含量和有机碳矿化速率均表现为天然草地和灌木林地较高,耕地最低;而土壤有机碳矿化率和呼吸速率表现为耕地和乔灌混交林地较高,灌木林地和天然草地较低。在土壤孵化的1 575 h内,不同土地利用方式下土壤矿化过程均可划分为4个阶段:0.5~5 h(第1阶段)、5~111 h(第2阶段)、111~399 h(第3阶段)和399~1 575 h(第4阶段);前399 h是可矿化碳排放的主要时段,前111 h是土壤可矿化碳排放速率最大且排放速率下降速度最快的主要时段;总体上,土壤可矿化碳累积排放量随培养时间的延长呈增加趋势,可矿化碳累积排放速率则逐渐降低。土壤有机碳矿化速率随土层深度的增加而递减。土壤有机碳矿化分解速率与有机碳总量有关,土壤呼吸与有机碳总量、矿化碳总量相关性不显著(P>0.05)。     

模拟氮沉降对温带森林凋落物分解的影响

森林凋落物的分解是生态系统养分循环的重要过程,以北京西山地带性植被栎树林（辽东栎：Quercus liaotungensis）为对象,主要研究温带森林植物凋落物分解对模拟氮沉降的响应,为更好地了解氮沉降对温带森林地区凋落物的分解过程提供参考.通过模拟氮沉降,研究不同形态氮（硝态氮、铵态氮和混合态氮）和不同水平氮沉降（对照0 kg·hm^-2·a^-1、低氮处理50 kg·hm^-2·a^-1 和高氮处理150 kg·hm^-2·a^-1）对凋落物分解的影响,在2 年的时间内调查分析了凋落物分解过程中质量损失动态和碳（C）、N 含量及w（C）/w（N）比值的变化.研究结果表明,氮沉降均使凋落物分解速率减缓,且随氮沉降剂量增加,凋落物分解速率相比对照分别减慢了9.88%（硝态氮低氮）、15.02%（硝态氮高氮）、11.46%（铵态氮低氮）、14.62%（铵态氮高氮）、13.04%（混合态氮低氮）和16.20%（混合态氮高氮）.且不同氮沉降类型、不同氮沉降水平间差异显著.不同形态、不同水平的氮沉降显著地增加了凋落物N 含量（P=0.061,P=0.087）,其中混合态氮沉降对凋落物中N 素含量增加最显著（P=0.044）.但在分解过程中,各处理均未对凋落物C 含量产生显著影响.不同水平的氮沉降显著降低了凋落物的w（C）/w（N）比值,而且不同类型不同水平氮沉降对凋落物w（C）/w（N）比值具有显著的交互作用（P=0.011）.综上所述,通过对模拟氮沉降后凋落物残留率等的变化分析,得出氮沉降对温带森林凋落物的分解产生了抑制作用.     

川西地区7种常见彩叶树种凋落物分解

凋落物分解是森林土壤碳和养分的重要来源.彩叶林为川西地区重要的生态系统类型之一,为探索川西地区常见彩叶树种凋落物分解速率与养分释放,采用尼龙分解袋法研究常见彩叶物种葛罗枫(Acer grosseri)、落叶松(Larix kaempferi)、青榨槭(Acer davidii)、元宝枫(Acer truncatum)、黄栌(Cotinus coggygria)、红桦(Betula albosinensis)和花楸(Sorbuspohuashanensis)凋落物分解过程中的质量损失和养分释放特征.结果表明,分解两年后7种彩叶树种凋落物质量残留率从高到低依次为元宝枫(66.4%)、落叶松(64.1%)、红桦(63.7%)、青榨槭(59.6%)、黄栌(58.9%)、葛罗枫(50.8%)和花楸(50.1%);凋落物质量损失主要发生在第一年,第一年凋落物质量损失率显著高于第二年.两年分解过程中,7种彩叶树种凋落物碳浓度下降,碳表现为净释放.氮磷释放特征在物种间差异显著,其中,花楸凋落物氮磷均表现为净释放.相关性分析表明,初始养分(氮和磷)含量与分解速率呈正相关,而难分解物质(木质素和纤维素)含量与分解速率呈负相关.综上所述,川西彩叶树种凋落物分解和氮磷释放因树种和分解时期而不同,花楸凋落物分解和养分释放速率相对较快;研究结果可为川西彩叶林景观恢复重建的物种选择提供科学依据.(图3表3参41)     

不同形态氮输入对湿地生态系统碳循环影响的研究进展

人类活动导致湿地生态系统氮负荷明显增加,引起生态系统碳循环过程发生诸多变化。外源氮输入对湿地生态系统土壤碳库稳定性的影响已成为当今国际研究的前沿问题之一。文章综述了不同形态氮素对湿地植物固碳潜势、土壤自养与异养呼吸速率的影响、土壤甲烷排放及不同形态氮与全球变暖对土壤有机碳及其组分矿化速率的交互作用的研究进展。研究表明,(1)植物对不同形态氮素的选择性吸收,会影响植物叶片的光合速率,改变植物的固碳潜势,影响植物根系的自养呼吸速率;同时,会影响凋落物归还量,改变植物对土壤的有机碳输入;此外,还可能影响凋落物的质量(如C/N),改变凋落物的分解速率,影响土壤异养呼吸速率。(2)各种形态氮输入对土壤p H产生不同的影响,改变土壤微生物及酶活性,影响有机碳的分解及土壤异养呼吸速率。(3)土壤有机碳组分对各种形态氮素的不同响应,也会改变土壤有机碳的矿化速率。(4)植物对不同形态氮素的选择性吸收,及各种形态氮输入对土壤p H产生的不同影响,会影响土壤中可利用C、N源的供应,改变土壤的酸碱环境及氧化还原电位,影响土壤CH4排放。(5)大气氮沉降与全球变暖同时影响土壤碳循环过程,但不同形态氮素与全球变暖对湿地土壤碳循环过程的交互作用研究仍较少见。迄今为止,氮沉降对湿地土壤碳库稳定性的影响效应仍存在很大的不确定性,仅有少量研究区分氮素形态对土壤碳库稳定性的影响,而关于湿地生态系统的研究鲜有报道。今后应着重区分不同形态氮素对湿地土壤碳库稳定性的影响机理研究,以便深入了解氮沉降与湿地土壤碳库稳定性之间的关系。     

不同强度间伐对杉木人工林凋落物分解速率的影响

为了明晰凋落物分解对间伐强度的响应,本文以南京市溧水区林场间伐7年后的25年生杉木Cunninghamia lanceolata(Lamb.)Hook.人工林为研究对象,研究了不同间伐强度下凋落物的分解速率和化学组成的变化,并分析其与部分环境因子之间的关系,以期为不同间伐强度对凋落物分解特征影响机制的初步探究奠定基础,为人工针叶林的可持续发展提供科学依据。结果显示,(1)间伐显著改变了杉木人工林凋落物的分解速率;与对照地相比,中度间伐下分解最快,失重率为31.98%;弱度间伐次之,为30.94%;强度间伐则会减缓杉木凋落物的分解,失重率仅达到27.03%。(2)经1年分解,对照地和3种间伐强度下凋落物均表现出N的净积累,中度间伐强度对凋落物中N的影响显著,w(C)/w(N)和w(木质素)/w(N)的年动态变化趋势相似,其中w(C)/w(N)是反映分解速率的理想指标。(3)间伐主要通过影响凋落物层温度、蔗糖酶和纤维素酶的活性来改变凋落物的分解速率。本研究结果表明,适度间伐能够改变凋落物层温度和酶活性,加速杉木人工林凋落物的分解,减缓过分积累,促进土壤养分的输入;过度间伐会抑制凋落物分解,阻滞养分的回归与利用。该研究对进一步揭示间伐对森林系统中物质及养分循环的影响机制有一定意义,可为制定合理有效的营林措施,促进针叶人工林养分循环提供一定的科学依据。     

内蒙古羊草草原凋落物分解过程中营养元素的动态

凋落物分解是生态系统养分循环的关键环节,作为植物体向土壤归还营养物质的主要途径,对维持生态系统的平衡具有重要的意义。以内蒙古锡林河流域的羊草草原优势种羊草(Leymus chinensis)和冰草(Agropyron cristatum)、羊草和冰草双物种、多物种混合凋落物为研究对象,采用凋落物袋法研究了4类凋落物的分解特征及营养元素动态变化过程。结果表明:多物种、双物种、羊草和冰草凋落物的分解常数分别为1.04、0.98、1.01和0.95;4类凋落物各元素表现为不同的动态变化特征,C、P、K、Mg、Ca、Cu为净释放,平均释放率在16.37%~87.43%,Fe为累积模式,累积率为140%~339%;羊草、冰草、多物种凋落物的Mn为净累积,累积率为35.07%~57.28%,而双物种凋落物的Mn为净释放,释放率仅为0.9%;羊草凋落物的Zn为净累积,累积率为70.76%,其它凋落物表现为净释放,释放率为4.09%~22.32%。混合凋落物分解存在非加性效应,在0~305 d内,羊草和冰草凋落物之间存在着抑制作用。羊草和冰草凋落物混合对C、Cu残留率起抑制作用,对Mn、Zn、Ca、Fe残留率起促进作用,而对N残留率先起促进作用后起抑制作用,对P、Mg、K的残留率无显著影响。     

内蒙古典型草原凋落物分解对不同草地利用方式的响应

以2005年设置的中德放牧控制试验为平台,研究了内蒙古典型草原群落凋落物的分解速率、失重率及其碳氮损失率在不同草地利用方式和放牧强度下的变化规律。草地利用方式包括:传统放牧、传统割草和放牧、割草轮换利用(混合利用)。放牧强度包括7个:0、1.5、3.0、4.5、6.0、7.5、9.0 sheep·hm~(-2)。结果表明:传统放牧和混合利用方式下,放牧都不同程度地加速了群落凋落物的分解和失重。在传统放牧平地系统中,放牧强度为7.5 sheep·hm~(-2)小区群落凋落物的分解速率和失重率均显著高于对照区,分别高出45.0%和40.0%;在混合利用平地系统中,放牧强度为6.0 sheep·hm~(-2)小区群落凋落物的分解速率显著高于对照区,高出35.0%;在混合利用坡地系统中,放牧强度为9.0 sheep·hm~(-2)小区群落凋落物的分解速率和失重率均显著高于对照区,分别高出82.4%和62.0%。群落凋落物碳损失率和氮损失率在传统放牧系统中,随放牧强度的增加呈现出相似的变化趋势,而在混合利用系统中,随放牧强度的增加呈现出相反的变化趋势,但是总体表现为,增加放牧强度会加速群落凋落物中碳氮的释放。高放牧强度下,群落凋落物的分解速率、失重率和碳损失率差异显著,表现为:混合利用传统割草传统放牧,这一试验结果在一定程度上验证了放牧优化假说。     

不同封育年限荒漠草原土壤有机碳矿化及温度敏感性

为了解宁夏荒漠草原土壤有机碳矿化对气候变化和封育禁牧措施的响应,该研究选取未封育(FY0)、封育5年(FY5)、9年(FY9)和12年(FY12)的荒漠草原为研究对象,采用室内培养碱液吸收法,分别在5、15、25和35℃条件下对不同封育年限的荒漠草原0—20 cm土壤进行76 d的培养,探讨了不同温度条件下各封育年限荒漠草原土壤有机碳的矿化动态及其温度敏感性(Q_(10))。结果表明:不同封育年限荒漠草原土壤有机碳矿化速率在不同温度条件下随培养时间的增加变化趋势基本相同,均在活跃期(0—13 d)迅速达到峰值,随后急剧下降,至惰性期(14—76 d)趋于平稳;不同温度条件下,荒漠草原土壤有机碳累积矿化量随封育年限延长的变化趋势不尽相同,在5℃和35℃培养条件下以封育9年的荒漠草原最高,分别为5.875 mg·g-1和7.587 mg·g~(-1)(P0.05),15℃和25℃培养条件下各封育年限荒漠草原之间差异不显著;一级动力学方程可较好地拟合不同封育年限荒漠草原土壤有机碳矿化特征,其潜在矿化量在不同培养温度下的变化范围为4.105—8.834mg·g~(-1),以封育5年的荒漠草原25℃处理条件下土壤有机碳潜在矿化量最大;随培养温度的增加,不同封育年限荒漠草原土壤有机碳累积矿化量总体呈波动性变化;未封育荒漠草原土壤有机碳矿化对温度的变化最为敏感,温度敏感性系数Q_(10)值为1.998,显著高于其他封育年限荒漠草原(P0.05)。综上,禁牧封育可改变荒漠草原土壤有机碳的矿化动态,并减弱其对温度变化的敏感性,从土壤碳蓄积的角度考虑,宁夏荒漠草原以封育9年以上为宜。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.