Explaining human settlement patterns in a recreational lake district: Vilas County,Wisconsin, USA

Lakeshore development in Vilas County, northern Wisconsin (USA) is heterogeneous, ranging from lakes that are surrounded by homes and commercial establishments to lakes that have no buildings on their shorelines. Development in this recreational area has increased, and since the 1960s over half of new homes have been built on the lakeshore. We examined building density around lakes in relationship to 11 variables, including in-lake, shoreline, and social characteristics. Buildings in many parts of northern Wisconsin tend to be concentrated around shorelines; in Vilas County 61% of all medium-sized buildings (our proxy for residential development) on private land were ≤100 m of a lake. The probability of development on a lake was largely related to lake surface area, with larger, more accessible lakes showing a higher probability of development. Building density along shorelines varied with travel cost, lake surface area, presence of wetlands, and extent of public land ownership. Building density was greater on larger, more accessible lakes that were surrounded by forest (as opposed to wetlands) and public lands. Gaining a more precise understanding of human settlement patterns can help direct planning and resource protection efforts to lakes most likely to experience future development.     

INFLUENCES ON RESIDENTIAL YARD CARE AND WATER QUALITY: TUALATIN WATERSHED,OREGON1

ABSTRACT: The Tualatin is the first watershed in Oregon to implement the Total Maximum Daily Load provisions of the Clean Water Act to deal with nonpoint source pollution. Local officials cite residential yard care practices as potential contributors to nonpoint source pollution in the basin. Qualitative and quantitative methods, including observation of yard maintenance styles, suggest behaviors potentially harmful to water quality and conservation. Yard maintenance is influenced by the importance of neighborhood appearance and concern for aesthetics. These concerns stimulate residents to water, fertilize, and apply weed control at more frequent intervals than yard care experts recommend. Better understanding of the effects that relations with neighbors and yard maintenance knowledge have on residential yard care practices can help improve water quality.     

GROUNDWATER FLOW SYSTEM ANALYSIS IN LAKE ENVIRONMENTS,WITH MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING IMPLICATIONS1

ABSTRACT. Evaluation of lakes as they are related to groundwater flow systems is of special concern prior to efficient development and planning operations. Both naturally occurring and artificially created lakes are being developed rapidly as recreational and residential areas. Simultaneously, field verification of theoretical groundwater flow system behavior has progressed to the point where hydrogeologists trained to understand basic concepts of flow-system analysis can begin to broaden their research and service base, and to work closer with planners, developers, and engineers. It is suggested that particular efforts be directed toward a greater evaluation of physical, chemical, and biological aspects of potentially developable lake sites to aid in selecting use patterns in accord with these factors. Many lake developments are not in harmony with the physical environment. The resulting misuse of resources is often expressed as accelerated eutrophication of lakes, or by quality degradation of shallow groundwater flow systems contiguous to them. Lakes can no longer be considered as separate entities. Methodology for investigating the interchange of surface and near-surface water is adequate however, the application of known interchange relationships is inadequate. .     

EFFECTS OF A RECREATIONAL IMPOUNDMENT ON NEARBY NATURAL LAKES: A CASE STUDY1

ABSTRACT: Completion of a 1270 acre recreational impoundment (Legend Lake) in the glacial sands of Menominee County, Wisconsin, produced geochemical and hydrologic alterations in some nearby natural lakes. The impoundment was produced by the construction of three dams, one of which proved to be temporary, connecting 9 natural lakes and ponds of 383 acres with 951 acres of flooded lands. Water levels were raised 3–15 feet within the impounded area. Much of the flooded area was peat rich wetland associated with the prior drainage. Water depths are less than 15 feet in 70% of the impoundment. Three seepage lakes, located less than 1/2 mile from the impoundment, experienced shoreline flooding, shoreline and soil erosion, some tree kills, and increased turbidity. These lakes also experienced concentration increases in several chemical constituents which indicate an influx of impoundment water through a regional alternation in the groundwater flow paths. The three lakes were connected by canals, and a 2.3 cfs gravity drain with an auxiliary pumping station was built to return excess water to the outflow of the impoundment. Future projects of this type would benefit from a more extensive hydrologic and geochemical analysis prior to initiation. Had environmental assessments been required at the time of this development, as they now are in Wisconsin for similar projects, some of the problems encountered might have been alleviated.     

THE EFFECT OF MAINTENANCE ON STORM WATER DETENTION BASIN EFFICIENCY1

ABSTRACT: Storm water detention is an effective and popular method for controlling the effects of increased urbanization and development. Detention basins are used to control both increases in flow rates and sedimentation. While numerous storm water management policies have been proposed, they most often fail to give adequate consideration to maintenance of the basin. Sediment accumulation with time and the growth of grass and weeds in the emergency spillway are two maintenance problems. A model that was calibrated with data from a storm water detention basin in Montgomery County, Maryland, is used to evaluate the effect of maintenance on the efficiency of the detention basin. Sediment accumulation in the basin caused the peak reduction factor to decrease while it increased as vegetation growth in the emergency spillway increased. Thus, the detention basin will not function as intended in the design when the basin is not properly maintained. Thus, maintenance of detention basins should be one component of a comprehensive storm water management policy.     

PLANNERS AS A PUBLIC IN WATER RESOURCES PUBLIC PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS1

This paper suggests a number of benefits in identifying urban and regional planners as a public in public participation programs of water resources planning studies. A perspective on public participation is presented. Recent trends and developing concepts are identified: emphasis on the need to coordinate urban and regional planning activities with water resources planning, increasing system complexity, the goals and objectives orientation of planning, planning for multi-objectives, the evaluation of a broader range of alternatives, and the consideration of water alternatives as only one set of measures to further society's aspirations. One way to assist in capitalizing on these trends is to seek out participation of those in other planning efforts who are involved in planning but on a different level. Because of their intimate knowledge of an areas history, growth and development, political climate, local perceptions of needs and desires, and major problems and issues they are able to contribute a great deal of insight in making the water resources planning effort more responsive at the local level. The paper describes one of the first major efforts at working-level public-planner contact which was carried out as part of the Susquehanna River Basin Study. A regional survey team comprised of an engineer and an economist from a federal agency and a state water resources planner met informally with planners, city managers, and local planning commissions to discuss issues related to water resources and the growth and development of local areas. This effort while only part of the overall public participation program yielded a number of benefits and if expanded and refined would be a very useful experience in other studies.     

EFFECTS OF URBAN LAKES ON QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF BASEFLOW1

ABSTRACT: Man-made lakes have significant impacts on the hydrologic conditions in the watershed in which they are built. This paper examines the nature of the impact upon baseflow by comparing baseflow conditions at the outlet of the lakes with those elsewhere in the watershed. Situated in the upper reaches of a small watershed, the lakes studied have only a minor effect upon the magnitude of baseflow discharge, increasing it slightly from October to January, and decreasing it from May to September. Baseflow quality is substantially affected. Natural dissolved ions, as represented by magnesium, are generally decreased in concentration and total load by the lakes. Road salt related inons are substantially increased in both concentration and total load in the baseflow. Surface runoff stored in the lakes is extremely enriched in salt in the winter, and the storage capacity of the lakes is sufficient to maintain winter salt concentrations in the baseflow near the lakes until summer. The storage effect also tends to damp out seasonal fluctuations in baseflow chloride content which are extreme in suburban watersheds. The difference in quality between the lake and non-lake baseflows and the linear distance needed for complete mixing are used as measures of the magnitude and distal extent of the lake effect on baseflow quality.     

遥感技术在城市湖泊演变研究中的应用

以武汉市东湖和沙湖为例,以多时相TM影像为数据源,利用ERDAS软件提取东湖和沙湖1991年、2001年和2006年的水域面积信息从时空两方面对湖泊水域面积的演化特征进行了系统分析。结果表明,1991—2006年湖泊水域面积出现急剧下降,减少了1040.43hm2。分析认为,随着城市经济的发展,对土地的需求会更为迫切,城市湖泊的保护也将面临巨大挑战。遥感技术具有宏观性、动态性与实时性的优势,能够快速、准确地获取大范围地区水域面积变化信息,定量地分析城市湖泊演化规律,为城市湖泊的合理开发、利用和保护提供重要依据。     

EFFECTS OF URBAN LAKES ON SURFACE RUNOFF AND WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: The effects of an artificial lake system upon the runoff hydrology of a small watershed have been determined by comparing the quantity and quality of runoff with that of an adjacent and similar watershed containing no lakes. Lake storage reduced peak discharge and slowed flood recession rate downstream. Water stored within the lakes is generally of different quality than downstream surface runoff. Salt stored in the lakes from winter deicing is released during periods of surface runoff throughout the rest of the year. During summer or fall runoff events, lake outflow dominates the salt load of the outlet stream, generating double-peaked load hydrographs in which the second, or lake-induced, crest is many times larger than the peak which corresponds to maximum flow. On the other hand, the lakes cause a reduction of salt loads and concentration in winter runoff. The concentration and loads of ions which are not related to road salt are generally less affected by the lakes, although they are increased substantially in the fall.     

Exploring Land Developer Perspectives on Conservation Subdivision Design and Environmentally Sustainable Land Development

Insight into land developers’ perspectives on alternative residential developments and the barriers they experience in trying to develop them can be crucial in efforts to change environmentally damaging low-density, large-lot, and automobile-dependent residential patterns. Using a semi-structured interview instrument followed by short surveys, I examined the views of 16 developers in Waukesha County, WI, USA, a county that has experienced significant development pressures and widespread implementation of conservation subdivision design. The land developer investigation focused on conservation subdivision design familiarity and implementation, and identified a number of barriers that developers experienced in implementing the design. While the majority of the developers appeared familiar with the design and had experience developing conservation subdivisions, their motivations for developing them varied, as did their on-site conservation practices. The barriers included the lack of land use regulations supporting the design, economic factors, community opposition, and a lack of knowledge about sustainable residential development practices. Strategies to promote more environmentally sustainable residential land development patterns include providing a more supportive institutional environment, enacting different regulations and guidelines for natural resources protection, and offering education on ecologically sound development and planning practices.     

Human health and sustainable water resources development in Nigeria: Schistosomiasis inartificial lakes

In the last three decades, there has been an unprecedented upsurge in dam construction in Nigeria to store water for year-round water supply, irrigation and fisheries. Out of a total of 323 dams identified in the literature, 246 (76.2%) were constructed since 1970. Although only 47 of the reservoir lakes have been surveyed for snail intermediate hosts and 11 of the 47 for human infection, the results obtained by the various workers are very revealing. Snail hosts of schistosomiasis were found in 20 (42.6%) of the 47 lakes and human infection in 10 (90.9%) of the 11 lakes investigated for the respective purposes. These findings show that dam construction is contributing to schistosomiasis transmission in Nigeria and, unless urgent steps are taken to reverse the situation, the adverse health consequences of the dams will more than balance their socio-economic benefits. This paper discusses these problems in the context of existing institutional and legal frameworks in Nigeria and identifies appropriate measures, that could achieve sustainable water resources development in the future.     

AN ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE LAND DEVELOPMENT AROUND LAKES1

ABSTRACT: The objective of the study was to evaluate alternative land developments around New Hampshire lakes. Alternative development patterns, evaluated by their impacts on the lake area environment and area economy, included residential patterns, commercial patterns, and combinations of these two types. Phosphorus loading of the lake water was used as a proxy variable for changes in the lake water quality. Commercial developments yielded the highest revenues to the town and the local area. It also attracted the most lake users to the area as well as contributing the largest phosphorus loading in the lake waters. Residential developments, although contributing high revenues to the businessmen in the area, yielded less net income to the town. Phosphorus loading levels from residential developments were much lower than lake phosphorus loading by commercial developments.     

Combining Nature Conservation and Residential Development in the Netherlands,England and Spain

In this paper the function of protected nature in rural living environments is discussed in relation to residential choice, appreciation of the residential environment and rural development policy. In five case studies a comparison is made between the situation of protected natural areas in the Netherlands, England and Spain. The research results show that protected natural areas are an increasingly popular endogenous quality of rural regions as they have the ability to influence the residential choice and satisfaction of households. Therefore, they have not only become an important driving factor in the attraction of residential and other consumption-orientated activities towards rural areas but also need to be considered in policy formulation. After all, choices have to be made when different functions need to be combined in rural areas. Different activities may have both positive and negative effects on each other and regulatory measures are needed to tune their co-existence. For a sustainable and balanced development of rural areas it is therefore very important to create basic conditions that will make the combination of activities possible within the specific national and regional contexts.     

A framework for profiling a lake's riparian area development potential

Some of the greatest challenges for managing residential development occur at the interface between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems--in a lake's riparian area. Land use planners need a framework they can use to identify development hotspots, areas were the next push for development will most likely occur. Lake riparian development profiles provide a framework for linking ecological and social factors important to development. In a test of this framework in northern Minnesota, researchers identified seven constructs influencing riparian area development: current general development, current housing development, and availability, accessibility, suitability, aesthetics, and proximity to services. Profiles display a lake's value for each construct relative to the range of values for all lakes in the county. Maps, developed using indicators for several constructs, allow us to identify how the factors interact and are dispersed across the landscape. These profiles help policy makers, planners, and managers identify lakes that are potential development hotspots so they can take timely steps to manage development or control the impacts of development.     

Commute mode diversity and income inequality: an inter-urban analysis of 148 midsize US cities

Little is known about the relationship between multi-modal transportation environments and aspects of sustainable urban development, such as reduced income inequality and affordable housing. This study, adapted from Molotch and Appelbaum's inter-city differential method, studied 148 semi-isolated mid-size cities. Using U.S. Census data from 2013, we found that increased diversity in commute modality is associated with less income inequality between white and African-American households, as well as between men and women. Commute mode diversity is also associated with higher earnings for white women and African-American men. Our study also shows that cities with more commuter mode diversity are associated with higher home property values and affordable rental markets compared to automobile dependent cities. These results undercut the notion that increasing automobile ownership is a reasonable policy response to urban poverty, and suggest that sustainable transportation policy can produce positive economic gains for cities. This work adds to the growing literature identifying fundamental differences between multimodal and automobile dependent cities.     

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC DAMAGE CAUSED BY SEDIMENT FROM AGRICULTURAL NONPOINT SOURCES1

Environmental and economic damages caused by agricultural nonpoint source inputs of sediment and associated pollutants are examined. Widespread water quality problems are identified in lakes, rivers, and estuaries in agricultural areas, and billions of dollars of on-site and offsite costs result from this eroded soil every year. Some water bodies have been irretrievably damaged, and expensive rehabilitation programs are needed to remedy in-place water pollution problems if Clean Water Act goals are to be achieved. Unless effective abatement and rehabilitation programs are established, billions of dollars of benefits to future generations will not be realized as more waters become irretrievably damaged, and billions more will continue to be spent by government to treat symptoms of these sediment-related problems.     

Valuing regional geoscientific data acquisition programmes: addressing issues of quantification,uncertainty and risk

Geological surveys worldwide are involved with research in support of sustainable mineral resource development.The socio-economic benefits to be derived from these activities, however, continue to raise organisational and government sector questions. Fundamental questions include whether or not the resources committed are appropriate and in economic balance with the total benefits to be derived. Another question concerns the degree to which such services should be funded by the community at large. These questions in turn raise important issues regarding the role and cost of geological surveys, the impact of their services, and how they should maximise community benefit from their activities and expertise. To assess the value of geoscientific information,standard valuation processes need to be modified. This paper reports on a methodology designed to quantify the 'worth' of programmes upgrading regional geoscientific infrastructure. An interdisciplinary approach is used to measure the impact of geoscientific information using quantitative resource assessment, computer-based mineral potential modelling, statistical analysis and risk quantification to model decision-processes and assess the impact of additional data. These modelling stages are used to address problems of complexity,uncertainty and credibility in the valuation of geoscientific data. A case study demonstrates the application of the methodology to generate a dollar value for current regional data upgrade programmes in the Geological Survey of Queensland. The results obtained are used for strategic planning of future data acquisition programmes aimed at supporting mineral resource management and stimulating effective exploration activity.     

RURAL HOUSEHOLD RESPONSE TO WATER CONTAMINATION IN WEST VIRGINIA1

ABSTRACT: About one-third of all West Virginians obtain domestic water from private water wells. In this research, mail and telephone surveys were used to investigate household responses to bacteria, mineral, and organic chemical contamination of domestic water supplies. Of households who were informed of contamination and acknowledged the problem, over 85 percent took action to avoid exposure to water contamination problems. The most common action was to clean and/or repair the water system (55.9 percent of valid surveys). Approximately 45 percent of households made investments of either a water treatment system, a new water source, or correction of contamination source. The average, annual economic cost of rural household actions was $320 for bacteria, $357 for minerals, and $1,090 for organic contamination. These economic costs represent a lower bound estimate for rural household willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a reduction in domestic water contamination from government action. On average, investment actions had lower annual economic costs than noninvestment actions of boiling and hauling water so that households who undertook investment actions in response to water contamination would have a lower WTP for government action to reduce water contamination. When effectiveness of water treatment systems was evaluated, treatment systems which require minimal household maintenance were found to reduce exposure to water contamination to safe levels as households intended when they installed the system. Treatment systems which were commonly ineffective included those which required continual maintenance (e.g., chiorinators) or were not designed to solve the contaminant problem for which they were purchased (e.g., filter systems for bacteria).     

A STUDY OF RESIDENTIAL STORMWATER IMPOUNDMENTS: PERCEPTIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS1

ABSTRACT: The traditional solution to stormwater runoff from housing developments has been stormwater sewer systems. A newer and increasingly popular solution is some sort of impoundment or “lake” within the development, which is thought to be cheaper, to provide recreation, to improve the aesthetics of the environment, and to increase property values. Little is known of the acceptability of these to public officials, developers, or potential residents, or of their policy implications. Two such developments in Mississauga, Ontario, were studied, in terms of the perceptions and opinions of a random sample of residents and of officials who had been involved in their planning and management. The areas have attracted a relatively young group, just beginning their child-bearing years, with relatively high income and education. The lakes appear to be popular, and relatively successful, especially the one which provides more recreational opportunities, and which has had fewer maintenance problems. The major problems are visual and safety. The City, and to some extent the developers, are seen as the appropriate groups to manage and maintain the lakes. Some suggestions, based on residents' and officials' responses, are presented for future designs and policy formulation.     

NONPRICE WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMS AS A DEMAND MANAGEMENT TOOL1

ABSTRACT: Water providers nationwide are implementing nonprice conservation measures such as education, public information, appliance retrofit and ordinances, with the expectation that these programs will reduce residential water demand. However, little empirical information exists on the effectiveness of nonprice conservation programs in reducing water demand. Previous econometric studies indicate these programs have had minimal impact. We examine the types and number of major nonprice conservation programs that have been implemented during an 11-year period in seven cities in the southwestern United States. A cross sectional, monthly time series residential water demand model, with parameters to control for variation in prices, temperature, precipitation and other factors, was used to empirically investigate the effectiveness of nonprice conservation programs in reducing water demand. We found significant reductions in use ranging between 1.1 percent and 4.0 percent per program. Because of the lack of information, we were unable to distinguish the effectiveness of individual or specific types of programs. Beyond finding that nonprice programs can be effective in reducing demand, questions regarding the efficiency and benefits to be achieved by conservation remain. As a step towards separating and evaluating the effects of individual programs, program benefits and efficiency, we recommend that utilities maintain more detailed and consistent information regarding the implementation of their nonprice programs.