Ecological restoration as a strategy for mitigating and adapting to climate change: lessons and challenges from Brazil

Climate change is a global phenomenon that affects biophysical systems and human well-being. The Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change entered into force in 2016 with the objective of strengthening the global response to climate change by keeping global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 °C. The agreement requires all Parties to submit their “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead. Reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation is an important strategy for mitigating climate change, particularly in developing countries with large forests. Extensive tropical forest loss and degradation have increased awareness at the international level of the need to undertake large-scale ecological restoration, highlighting the need to identify cases in which restoration strategies can contribute to mitigation and adaptation. Here we consider Brazil as a case study to evaluate the benefits and challenges of implementing large-scale restoration programs in developing countries. The Brazilian NDC included the target of restoring and reforesting 12 million hectares of forests for multiple uses by 2030. Restoration of native vegetation is one of the foundations of sustainable rural development in Brazil and should consider multiple purposes, from biodiversity and ecosystem services conservation to social and economic development. However, ecological restoration still presents substantial challenges for tropical and mega-diverse countries, including the need to develop plans that are technically and financially feasible, as well as public policies and monitoring instruments that can assess effectiveness. The planning, execution, and monitoring of restoration efforts strongly depend on the context and the diagnosis of the area with respect to reference ecosystems (e.g., forests, savannas, grasslands, wetlands). In addition, poor integration of climate change policies at the national and subnational levels and with other sectorial policies constrains the large-scale implementation of restoration programs. The case of Brazil shows that slowing deforestation is possible; however, this analysis highlights the need for increased national commitment and international support for actions that require large-scale transformations of the forest sector regarding ecosystem restoration efforts. Scaling up the ambitions and actions of the Paris Agreement implies the need for a global framework that recognizes landscape restoration as a cost-effective nature-based solution and that supports countries in addressing their remaining needs, challenges, and barriers.

     

Voluntary approaches in protection of forests in Austria

Voluntary contributions to biodiversity conservation efforts in private forests of Austria have a long tradition which dates back to the 19th century. The most important remnants of undisturbed forests of the Alps today owe their existence to these voluntary initiatives by forest owners. In this earlier period the protection of forest areas by decree or biodiversity conservation initiatives on public owned forests, did not play such a prominent role. But as well as national parks, Natura 2000 areas and other programmes based on protection by decree, significant new voluntary approaches have emerged recently. The Austrian Forest Reserves Programme started in 1995, as a specific approach to voluntary participation in biodiversity conservation by private landowners is discussed in detail. This programme is based on the concept of nature conservation by contracts under private law, agreed between the forest owners and the Republic of Austria. The main characteristics of the programme are presented and experiences gained during the establishment and the maintenance of the network are discussed. Other voluntary initiatives, such as an Austrian network of gene conservation forests, as well as an initiative of a forest owner’s association, are also presented and discussed.     

Non-market values of forest biodiversity and the impact of informing the general public: Insights from generalized multinomial logit estimations

Apart from the ethical argument around trade-off that individuals have to make between monetary and non-monetary value, application of stated preference method was exposed to another criticism related to the complexity of biodiversity issue and the capacity of the general public to provide accurate responses to willingness to pay elicitation survey. This paper tests how providing information about the ecological processes underlying forest management scenarios affects public preferences and their valuation of biodiversity in publicly owned forest land in France. The generalized multinomial logit models applied to choice experiment data suggests that all respondents adopt the same heuristics based on easily visible aspects of forest landscape, to reveal their use and nonuse values of biodiversity. However, when they receive additional ecological information, only those who are familiar with the biodiversity concept, have awareness of issues at stake, and have a regular use of forest tend to attach higher values to less known biodiversity component (fallen deadwood in this case). The paper concludes that “mass media campaign” has to be completed by environmental literacy programs, to improve people’s awareness and understanding of what biodiversity means from ecological functioning, then making economic valuation a useful tool from a conservation perspective.     

Advancing urban ecosystem governance in New York City: Shifting towards a unified perspective for conservation management

New York City’s extensive municipal park system is home to forests, wetlands, and grasslands that provide important ecological and social benefits to the city’s population. While efforts and programs exist to restore and protect these spaces, management recommendations are complex due to variable conditions in urban natural areas. To advance the management of urban natural areas, the first comprehensive ecological assessment was conducted through a collaborative effort across 4000 ha of natural areas within New York City parkland. Field and spatial data were collected and analyzed to identify the extent of forests, the types of forests, and their conditions. This approach will help guide decision-making and prioritization of natural area management at the regional level by developing unique quantitative targets for urban forests. This project serves as an example of collaboration between private and public institutions advancing the governance of urban natural areas to achieve citywide conservation and policy goals.     

西藏森林生态系统服务价值

森林生态系统作为可再生的自然资源,具有公共物品的属性,随着环境污染和资源危机的加剧,具有可持续意义的森林生态服务价值受到人类的重视。论文采用产量-价格法、直接市场法、影子工程法、机会成本法等主要研究方法,核算了西藏森林生态系统价值,结果表明:西藏森林生态系统服务价值中碳库、木材和生物多样性存量价值为44543.5×10⁸元,其中生态价值是直接经济价值的2.24倍;在流量中,年流量价值1738.3×10⁸元,其中年生态价值为1565.9×10⁸元,是直接经济价值172.4×10⁸元的9倍,社会价值只有9.5×10⁸元。论文旨在强调森林的生态功能,为西藏的生态补偿、绿色GDP核算奠定良好的基础。     

我国城市森林文态保护和管理的探讨

森林具有经济、生态、社会和文化功能。森林文态与森林生态相对应,是指在森林的自然、生命系统的基础上形成的人文精神的综合。近年来,我国城市化率已由1993年的28%提高到2008年的45.68%,城市森林生态保护有了长足的发展,但也存在着对森林文态保护重视不够、相关管理滞后等问题。为了加强城市森林文态保护和管理,研究认为,我国社会经济发展已走向成熟推进和消费阶段,森林文态保护是未来城市森林发展的灵魂,尤其是随着我国城市化水平的提高,城市森林文态保护将越来越受到重视。研究最后建议,应把城市森林文态保护纳入森林立法和管理,加强城市森林发展规划,突出物质财富生产和精神财富生产的有机结合,促进城市森林文态保护和绿色文化的发展。     

Integrated modelling approaches to analysis of climate change impacts on forests and forest management

This paper reviews integrated economic and ecological models that address impacts and adaptation to climate change in the forest sector. Early economic model studies considered forests as one out of many possible impacts of climate change, while ecological model studies tended to limit the economic impacts to fixed price-assumptions. More recent studies include broader representations of both systems, but there are still few studies which can be regarded fully integrated. Full integration of ecological and economic models is needed to address forest management under climate change appropriately. The conclusion so far is that there are vast uncertainties about how climate change affects forests. This is partly due to the limited knowledge about the global implications of the social and economical adaptation to the effects of climate change on forests.     

西双版纳自然保护区与周边社区的共管研究

自然保护区社区共管的实施,缓解了保护区与社区的矛盾,在促进生物多样性保护与社区经济发展方面取得了显著的效果。然而,由于管理目标冲突、经费不足、宣传教育力度不足等问题,限制了共管的实施范围及可持续性。通过采取构建科学的共管运行机制、激励机制,生态教育等措施,突破共管的制约因素,促进了自然保护区及其社区的可持续发展。     

Tanzania's vanishing rain forests — assessment of nature conservation values, biodiversity and importance for water catchment

The rain forests of Tanzania occupy small areas, mostly confined to isolated mountains. Except for some isolated volcanic mountains (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru, the Ngorongoro Crater), most of the rain forests are confined to the so-called Eastern Arc mountains with old crystalline bedrocks. The Eastern Arc rain forests are characterized by high biodiversity, and have large numbers of endemic and rare taxa of plants and animals. The submontane and montane rain forests are extremely important water catchments, providing water for major cities and densely populated rural areas. Most of the rain forest catchments are forest reserves, but still the human impact around and inside the reserves is considerable. Intensive cultivation due to heavy population pressure affects the reserves from all sides, leaving the forests isolated, fragmented ‘islands’ surrounded by the cultural landscape. Former timber production and logging programs initiated by the State and some foreign development organizations have depleted large areas of rain forests, e.g. in the Usambara Mountains. Extensive, destructive, legal and illegal activities such as, e.g. logging, pit-sawing and grazing have taken place inside most of the forest reserves. Some research programs on rain forest catchments are now being carried out in Tanzania, forming a basis for future management and monitoring of the forest reserves. The forest authorities are currently much concerned about the problems, giving catchment forest management highest priority in the Tropical Forestry Action Plan.     

云南棕榈藤资源及发展策略

云南省具有丰富的棕榈藤种质资源,棕榈藤作为一种重要的非木材植物,不仅在全球生物多样性保护、经济贡献和生态重建等方面起着重要的作用,而且,与当地居民有着密切的联系,为各少数民族创造了财富。然而,随着经济的发展,森林资源减少,环境条件退化,棕榈藤资源日益减少,特别是有些优良棕榈藤种类处于濒危状态。因此,优良棕榈藤的引入、繁殖和栽培,不仅将满足棕榈藤发展的需要,而且亦将扩大良种藤的遗传基因库,为未来棕榈藤资源的进一步开发利用打下坚实的基础。论文基于云南棕榈藤资源发展的要求,对棕榈藤资源现状、利用、发展潜力和策略进行探讨。     

基于林权制度改革对生态环境影响多维量表分析

林权改革是促进林业发展的根本措施,但不可否认其对生态环境产生一定的影响。2011年7-8月,本研究选择江西遂川,福建三明、永安,辽宁清原,北京怀柔等进行实地问卷调查,并对调查结果进行多维量表分析。研究表明：林权改革对森林生态环境有明显的影响,尤其林改前后林业的投入对森林生物多样性、森林水源涵养和水土保持有显著的影响。同时,农民（林农）对林权改革的态度、家庭年收入水平、教育程度和性别等对环境影响评价结果也有一定的影响。研究建议,林权改革涉及面广,并涉及国家生态环境安全和农民的长远利益,应该深入开展生态环境影响的评价研究,并把林权改革作为重点领域开展政策环境影响评价的试点,为在我国在规划环评基础上进一步推行政策环评制度和完善林权改革配套政策提供技术支撑。     

浅议西双版纳热带雨林保护中的生态补偿机制

西双版纳热带雨林是地球同一纬度上保存较为完好的大面积热带雨林,生物多样性保护受到国内外的广泛关注. 处理好目前西双版纳在发展和保护中存在的远期与短期利益、局部与全局利益矛盾突出的问题,需要建立科学合理的国家生态补偿机制. 分析了西双版纳热带雨林保护现状和存在的主要问题,结合实际,依据可持续发展的原理,提出了建立生态补偿的对策和建议.     

森林生态系统恢复力评价——以江西省莲花县为例

生态系统恢复力是森林资源可持续发展的中心目标之一。在明确生态系统恢复力定义和尺度的基础上,分析了森林生态系统恢复力的影响因素,从生境条件和生态存储两方面遴选出26个指标,建立了森林生态系统恢复力评价指标体系,并以江西省莲花县为案例区,采用组合赋权法确定了指标权重,通过空间叠加计算了莲花县森林生态系统恢复力。结果表明:森林生态系统恢复力主要受内部存储的影响,其权重达到0.554。莲花县森林生态系统恢复力在0.103到0.464之间,平均值为0.268,恢复力达到或超过平均水平的森林面积为37 907 hm²,占森林总面积的49.2%,整体处于较低水平;分级结果表明仅48.16%的森林达到高或较高恢复力水平;在空间分布上,莲花县森林生态系统恢复力为南高北低,南部和中部的森林大多处于高或较高恢复力水平,北部地区大部分森林处于中等、较低或低恢复力水平。此外,恢复力高的森林沿乡镇边界线分布的特点非常明显。该研究结果可为森林资源管理提供重要科学依据。     

Towards a climate change adaptation strategy for coffee communities and ecosystems in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico

The mountain chain of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in southern Mexico is globally significant for its biodiversity and is one of the most important coffee production areas of Mexico. It provides water for several municipalities and its biosphere reserves are important tourist attractions. Much of the forest cover outside the core protected areas is in fact coffee grown under traditional forest shade. Unless this (agro)forest cover can be sustained, the biodiversity of the Sierra Madre and the environmental services it provides are at risk. We analyzed the threats to livelihoods and environment from climate change through crop suitability modeling based on downscaled climate scenarios for the period 2040 to 2069 (referred to as 2050s) and developed adaptation options through an expert workshop. Significant areas of forest and occasionally coffee are destroyed every year by wildfires, and this problem is bound to increase in a hotter and drier future climate. Widespread landslides and inundations, including on coffee farms, have recently been caused by hurricanes whose intensity is predicted to increase. A hotter climate with more irregular rainfall will be less favorable to the production of quality coffee and lower profitability may compel farmers to abandon shade coffee and expand other land uses of less biodiversity value, probably at the expense of forest. A comprehensive strategy to sustain the biodiversity, ecosystem services and livelihoods of the Sierra Madre in the face of climate change should include the promotion of biodiversity friendly coffee growing and processing practices including complex shade which can offer some hurricane protection and product diversification; payments for forest conservation and restoration from existing government programs complemented by private initiatives; diversification of income sources to mitigate risks associated with unstable environmental conditions and coffee markets; integrated fire management; development of markets that reward sustainable land use practices and forest conservation; crop insurance programs that are accessible to smallholders; and the strengthening of local capacity for adaptive resource management.     

Low carbon emission development strategies for Jambi,Indonesia: simulation and trade-off analysis using the FALLOW model

Economic growth in rural areas has to align with preservation of land uses that optimise environmental services. This means that trade-offs between economic and ecological priorities need to be understood, quantified and managed. We aimed to estimate the trade-off in the Tanjung Jabung Barat district of Jambi province Indonesia, where traditional agroforestry systems on both peat and mineral soils and logged-over forests give way to monocultural plantations of pulpwood and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Simulations of a 30-year time period of four scenarios using the FALLOW (Forests, Agroforests, Low-value-Landscape, Or, Wastelands) model show that a business-as-usual scenario of economic growth unhindered by the application of conservation scenarios will lead to high carbon dioxide CO₂ emissions. The forest and agroforest protection scenario, with moderate assumptions for peat-based emissions, had opportunity costs of 3–100 USD/t CO₂e. This occurred especially when the establishment of oil palm plantations, which are currently the most profitable land use option in the area, is directed solely to under utilized mineral soils. The high trade-off values are difficult to reconcile when relying only on C trading mechanism to offset economic opportunity costs of not converting forests and/or agroforests to plantations. We conclude that law-based protection of existing forests, investment in intermediate intensity agroforestry options that utilize locally adapted trees and do not require drainage of peatlands, and re-introduction of tapping Jelutung (Dyera sp) latex as non-timber peat forest product, are needed in the Tanjabar district to provide options that are sustainable from both ecological and economic perspectives.     

A framework for adapting urban forests to climate change

Planting urban trees and expanding urban forest canopy cover are often considered key strategies for reducing climate change impacts in urban areas. However, urban trees and forests can also be vulnerable to climate change through shifts in tree habitat suitability, changes in pests and diseases, and changes in extreme weather events. We developed a three-step framework for urban forest vulnerability assessment and adaptation that scales from regional assessment to local on-the-ground action. We piloted this framework in the Chicago region in 10 locations representing an urban-exurban gradient across a range of socioeconomic capacities. The majority of trees across a seven-county region had low to moderate vulnerability, but many of the least vulnerable species were nonnative invasive species. Urban forests in the 10 pilot locations ranged in vulnerability largely due to differences in economic and organizational adaptive capacity. Adaptation actions selected in these locations tended to focus on increased biodiversity and restoration of natural disturbance regimes. However, adaptation actions in more developed sites also included incorporating new species or cultivars. Lessons learned from the pilot area can be used to inform future efforts in other urban areas.     

Forest policies and programs affecting vulnerability and adaptation to climate change

Due to large scale afforestation programs and forest conservation legislations, India’s total forest area seems to have stabilized or even increased. In spite of such efforts, forest fragmentation and degradation continues, with forests being subject to increased pressure due to anthropogenic factors. Such fragmentation and degradation is leading to the forest cover to change from very dense to moderately dense and open forest and 253 km² of very dense forest has been converted to moderately dense forest, open forest, scrub and non-forest (during 2005–2007). Similarly, there has been a degradation of 4,120 km² of moderately dense forest to open forest, scrub and non-forest resulting in a net loss of 936 km² of moderately dense forest. Additionally, 4,335 km² of open forest have degraded to scrub and non-forest. Coupled with pressure due to anthropogenic factors, climate change is likely to be an added stress on forests. Forest sector programs and policies are major factors that determine the status of forests and potentially resilience to projected impacts of climate change. An attempt is made to review the forest policies and programs and their implications for the status of forests and for vulnerability of forests to projected climate change. The study concludes that forest conservation and development policies and programs need to be oriented to incorporate climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation.     

试论耿马县生态环境建设与保护

生态环境是人类生存和发展的基本条件,是经济、社会发展的基础。介绍了耿马县在生态环境建设与保护方面取得的明显成效,分析了存在的森林生态系统失衡、生物多样性受到破坏、水土流失、农业生态环境恶化、自然生态规律被打乱等问题及原因,提出了对策。     

中东部地区森林资源现状与问题分析

采用20世纪80-90年代的文献资料及调研数据,分析了我国中东部地区森林生态环境的现状.结果表明,我国中东部地区森林资源丰富,森林覆盖率明显提高,但存在分布不均,人均占有量低,结构不尽合理,生态功能低下等问题.为此,中东部地区应在提高森林面积的同时,继续加大天然林保护力度,不断提高森林质量;在管理和经营方面,要保护和利用结合,分类经营、分区管理.      

对“三北”防护林体系工程的思考与展望

“三北”防护林体系工程是一项宏伟的工程,她不仅是中国生态环境建设的伟大创举,也是全球生态环境建设的重要组成部分。始于1978年的这项生态工程,23年来累计造林保存面积2203.72×104hm₂,“三北”地区的森林覆盖率已从工程开始实施时的5.05%提高到目前的9%,一些重点地区的区域性防护林体系已初具规模,生态效益、经济效益、社会效益都有了不同程度的提高。这一工程体系突破了传统的单一模式,实行带、片、网相结合,人工造林、飞播造林、封山封沙育林相结合,造(林)、封(育)、管(护)相结合,丰富了防护林体系建设的科学内涵。21世纪前50年是“三北”防护林体系建设的攻坚期,也是决战期,必须重视科技成果的推广运用,加快工程建设步伐,并采取切实措施巩固建设成果。