Environmental impacts of anthropogenic activities on the mineral uptake in Oreochromis mossambicus from Indus River in Pakistan

We examined the extent of mineral uptake in different tissues of Oreochromis mossambicus from Indus River which is claimed to be polluted by human activities. Samples of water and fish tissues were analysed from two sites (SK = upstream and CH = downstream) of Indus River. Whilst the water quality appeared to be suitable for aquatic life, significant differences between fish tissues and sampling sites were observed for different mineral concentrations. Fins generally had the highest metal load followed by muscles, gills, scales and skin. Na, Mg, Mn and Zn concentrations in different fish tissues were greater for CH than SK, whereas K, Ca, Pb, Cu, Fe, Hg and Cr were higher at SK than CH (P?<?0.001). This variation in metal profiles of different locations of the Indus River was a reflection of relevant mineral pollutions at these sites. It appeared that the pattern of metal uptake in fish tissues can be utilised as an indicator of environmental contamination of river water systems. These studies may help us plan strategies to alleviate the ecotoxicological impacts of heavy metals in freshwaters on fish and human populations.     

Monitoring trace metals in different tissues of Cyprinus carpio from the Indus River in Pakistan

This replicated 4×2 factorial study investigated the bioaccumulation of selected metals (Mn, Pb, Zn, Hg and Cr) in four tissues (gills, liver, muscle and skin) of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) domiciled in two sites (upstream and downstream) of Indus River in Mianwali district of Pakistan. The data were statistically compared for the main effects of the site and fish organs and their interaction on the bioaccumulation pattern of these metals in fish organs at P?P?相似文献   

Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish tissues of a freshwater lake of Bhopal

Contamination of heavy metals, namely, lead, cadmium, zinc, nickel, copper, chromium and mercury was evaluated in the samples of water and tissues of Labeo rohita and Ctenopharyngodon idella of Upper Lake of Bhopal collected during summer, rainy and winter seasons of 2005–2006. Different organs of the fishes accumulated varying quantities of different heavy metals. In L. rohita, accumulation of heavy metals was in the sequence liver > kidney > gills > muscles, and in C. idella, it was gills > liver > kidney > muscles. Zn was the highest accumulating metal in fish, whilst Hg was the lowest and was well corroborated with those of water. The values of heavy metals were so far well within the maximum permissible standard value of heavy metals for drinking water and for fish culture as prescribed by various national and international agencies.     

Assessment of metal status in drainage canal water and their bioaccumulation in Oreochromis niloticus fish in relation to human health

The purpose of this study was to assess metal concentrations (Al, Cd, Pb, Hg and Ni) in Sabal drainage canal (Al-Menoufiya Province, River Nile Delta, Egypt) water as well as their accumulation in some selected organs (skin, muscles and kidneys) of Oreochromis niloticus fish to evaluate their hazard levels in relation to the maximum residual limits for human consumption. Drainage canal water was found to be heavily polluted with metals which far exceeded the permissible limits. It was found that metals accumulated in organs of O. niloticus in concentrations higher than those of canal water. Kidneys of O. niloticus contained the highest concentrations of the detected metals, while skin appeared to be the least preferred site for the bioaccumulation of metals as the lowest metals concentrations were detected in this tissue. The present study shows that fish organs contained high levels of metals exceeding the permissible limits values. Metals in muscle of fish were higher than the maximum permissible concentrations for human consumption. Thus, consuming fish caught from drainage canals is harmful to the consumers.     

Heavy metals and arsenic concentrations in ten fish species from the Šalek lakes (Slovenia): assessment of potential human health risk due to fish consumption

The study, which measured the concentrations of Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn and As in various fish tissues (muscle, gill and liver) of 10 fish species (Abramis brama danubii, Alburnus alburnus alburnus, Barbus meridionalis petenyi, Carassius auratius gibelio, Cyprinus carpio, Lepomis gibossus, Leuciscius cephalus cephalus, Perca fluviatilis fluviatilis, Rutilus rutilus, Scardinus erythrophtlalmus erythrophtlalmus) collected in the Šalek lakes, is the first survey regarding metal concentrations in fish species with samples originating from Slovene lakes, while only a limited number of such studies have been carried out in southeastern Europe. Since these lakes are situated in the close vicinity of the largest Slovene thermal power plant, the study provides an insight into the potential impact of increased levels of metals in the environment as well as an estimate of the contamination of fish tissues with metals. Furthermore, it was possible to compare the results obtained with those from other studies regarding metal levels in freshwater fish species. The mean metal concentrations of different tissues irrespective of species varied in the following ranges: Zn 4.31–199 mg/kg ww, Pb 0.01–0.48 mg/kg ww, As 0.02–0.44 mg/kg ww, Hg <0.01–0.31 mg/kg ww, Cd < 0.01–0.19 mg/kg ww. In general, higher contents of Hg were found in muscles and livers than in gills and higher contents of As in gills and livers than in muscles, respectively. The accumulation of Pb and Zn was most pronounced in gills. The result obtained regarding metal concentrations in fish revealed that the ecosystems of the Šalek lakes are not polluted with Hg and Pb, slightly loaded with As and Cd and moderately polluted with Zn. In addition, the potential human health risk due to fish consumption was assessed. This showed that the estimated weekly intakes for all metals were far below provisional permissible tolerable weekly intakes determined by WHO/FAO. The consumption of fish from the Šalek lakes, therefore, does not pose a risk to human health.     

Concentration of four heavy metals (cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic) in organs of two cyprinid fish (Cyprinus carpio and Capoeta sp.) from the Kor River (Iran)

Concentration of heavy metals in aquatic animals mainly occurs due to industrial contamination. In this study, the concentrations of four heavy metals (cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic) in organs of two cyprinid fish and in water collected from three sections of the Kor River, Iran were determined using the inductively coupled plasma method. Pathological and hormonal changes due to metal contamination were also measured. The concentrations of heavy metals in tissue of fish from the middle sampling zone were significantly higher (p?<?0.05) than those from the other two sampling zones, whereas no significant differences (p?>?0.05) were detected between the two sexes and species. High levels of metals were found in the ovaries and testes; estradiol in females and progesterone and testosterone in males from the middle study site were significantly (p?<?0.05) lower than values from the other two sites. Pathological changes in blood cells, liver, and kidneys of fishes were significantly higher in highly polluted areas (middle sampling zone). These results show that industrial activities have polluted the river and that the maximum concentrations of Cd, Pb, and Hg were higher than the permissible levels for human consumption.     

Consumption of unsafe food in the adjacent area of Hazaribag tannery campus and Buriganga River embankments of Bangladesh: heavy metal contamination

The concentrations of Cr, Cd, Pb, Hg, and As in water, poultry meat, fish, vegetables, and rice plants obtained from the area adjacent to the Hazaribag tannery campus, Dhaka, Bangladesh, were estimated and compared with permissible levels established by the WHO and FAO and levels reported previously by other authors. The metal contents were in the following order according to the concentration in contaminated irrigation water: Cr?>?Pb?>?As?>?Hg?>?Cd. Mean concentrations of Cr, Pb, Hg, and As in irrigated water were above the permissible levels, whereas the results were below the permissible levels for Cd. The metal concentrations in poultry meat, fish, rice, and vegetables were in the following orders: Pb?>?Cr?>?Cd?>?Hg?>?As, Pb?>?Cr?>?Cd?>?As?>?Hg, Pb?>?As, and Cr?>?Pb?>?Cd?>?As?>?Hg, respectively. The mean concentrations of metals in poultry meat, fish, rice, and vegetables were much higher than the permissible levels. The trends of weekly intake of heavy metals (WIMs) from poultry meat, fish, rice, and vegetables were as follows: Pb?>?Cr?>?Cd?>?Hg?>?As, Pb?>?Cr?>?Cd?>?As?>?Hg, Pb?>?As, and Cr?>?Pb?>?Cd?>?As?>?Hg, respectively. WIMs for all the metals were lower than the provisional maximum weekly intake recommended by WHO/FAO and USNAS.     

Accumulation of some heavy metals in Hysterothylacium aduncum (Nematoda) and its host sea bream, Sparus aurata (Sparidae) from North-Eastern Mediterranean Sea (Iskenderun Bay)

The sea bream??s nematode and Sparus aurata, sampled from the Iskenderun Bay, Mediterranean, in March 2008 were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma?Catomic emission spectrometry for their some heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mg, Pb, and Zn) levels. The metal concentrations of the parasites were compared to different organs (liver, muscle, gill, intestine, and skin) of the fish hosts. There were significant differences in Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Hg, Mg, and Pb concentrations in tissues of fish and its parasite. The parasite Cd, Cu, and Pb concentration was higher than the other tissues. Furthermore, significant differences were detected in the heavy metal accumulations between the parasitized and unparasitized fish tissues in Cd, Cu, Hg, and Pb concentrations. The Cd, Hg, and Pb concentrations were found in fish muscle at mean concentrations over the permissible limits proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization.     

贵州煤矿区表层水-沉积物重金属分布特征及来源分析——以新寨河为例

为探索贵州煤矿区表层水-沉积物中重金属的分布特征及来源,科学制定环境保护与污染治理措施,以新寨河为研究对象,在11个样点共采集66个表层水体和沉积物样品,通过对Cd、Pb、Cr、Zn、Cu、As、Hg、Fe、Mn等9种重金属元素进行分析,揭示其在新寨河的空间分布特征。同时,利用多指数法开展了有毒重金属元素污染状况评价,通过相关性分析和主成分分析解析了重金属的来源。结果表明,新寨河流域表层水体中,Fe、Mn点位超标率达100%。表层水中重金属元素的平均含量排序为Fe＞Mn＞Zn＞Cu＞Cr＞As＞Cd＞Pb＞Hg,而沉积物中重金属元素的平均含量排序则是Fe＞Mn＞Zn＞Cr＞Cu＞As＞Pb＞Cd＞Hg,表明新寨河表层水体和沉积物中重金属元素的空间分布存在一定差异。各重金属元素的内梅罗综合污染指数介于0.59~1.13之间,表明新寨河表层水体中重金属的污染程度达到轻微污染水平。单种重金属元素的潜在生态危害系数计算结果显示,90.91%和9.09%的沉积物样点分别被归类为轻微风险和中等风险。所有样点沉积物的潜在生态危害指数介于14.57~120.55之间(均值为72.08),表明新寨河沉积物的潜在生态风险较低。Cu、As在多个样点存在污染现象,需予以重点监控管理。新寨河流域重金属的来源可分为三大类:Cd、Pb、Cr、Zn、Cu为第一类,对应地表径流源;As、Fe、Mn为第二类,对应煤矿开采源;Hg为第三类,对应复合源。     

Study of seasonal variations and health risk assessment of heavy metals in Cyprinus carpio from Rawal Lake,Pakistan

This study was carried out to find out the comparative distribution of heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Co, Cr, Cd and Pb) in various tissues (muscles, gills, liver, stomach and intestine) of Cyprinus carpio from Rawal Lake, Pakistan, during summer and winter. Relatively higher concentrations of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe and Zn were found in the stomach samples, while the highest Pb and Zn levels were noted in muscle and intestine samples, respectively. Correlation study exhibited diverse relationships among the metals in various tissues. Generally, the metal concentrations found during the summer were comparatively higher than the winter. Potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks related to the metals in C. carpio were evaluated using the US Environmental Protection Agency approved cancer risk assessment guidelines. The calculated daily and weekly intakes of Pb, Cd, Cr and Co through the fish consumption were significantly higher than the permissible limits. In relation to the non-carcinogenic risks to human, Pb, Cd, Cr, Co and Zn levels were higher than the safe limits; however, carcinogenic risks related to Cr (3.9?×?10^?3 during summer and 1.1?×?10^?3 during winter) and Pb (2.6?×?10^?4 during summer and 1.5?×?10^-4 during winter) clearly exceeded the safe limit (1?×?10^?6). Consequently, the consumption of C. carpio from Rawal Lake on regular basis was considered unsafe.     

Heavy metals in two fish species (Carangoidel malabaricus and Belone stronglurus) from Pulicat Lake, North of Chennai, Southeast Coast of India

We present the results from a detailed study based on five metals (Cr, Cd, Zn, Pb and Fe) measured in four organs (gills, liver, intestine and muscle) of two fish species (Carangoidel malabaricus and Belone stronglurus) from Pulicat Lake in southeast coast of India. The results show marked differences between the two species and organs as well as significant variations within the five analyzed metals. Although the metal concentrations measured in fish muscle are low, high levels of Pb and Fe were observed in the liver and gills of the two fish species. The concentrations of heavy metals in edible parts (muscle) of fish were within the permissible levels and are safe for the human consumption.     

Assessment and sources of heavy metals in surface sediments of Miyun Reservoir, Beijing

Heavy metals concentrations in surface sediments from Miyun Reservoir were determined to evaluate the pollution and identify the sources. The average content of metals in sediments from Miyun Reservoir followed the order Al>Fe>Ti>Mn>V>Zn>Cr>Ni>Cu>Pb>As>Cd>Hg, and the most mean values were lower than the globe average shale. Heavy metals concentrations at the inflow area of Baihe were higher than those at the inflow area of Chaohe. Heavy metals pollution assessment was carried out by factor enrichment (EF), geoaccumulation index (I _geo), and potential ecological risk (RI). The EF values for all heavy metals except Hg, Cd, and Cr at several sites were lower than 3, suggesting low anthropogenic impact on the metals level. The I _geo values of Pb indicated that half of the sites were unpolluted to moderately polluted and mainly located in the Baihe area of the reservoir. The RI showed that heavy metals of Miyun Reservoir were low potential risk, however, Hg approached or belonged to moderate ecological risk at sites of M5, M7, and M13. Correlation analysis and principal component suggested that Ni, Cu, V, Zn, Mn, Cr, Ti, and Pb were derived from soil erosion in upper reaches of the reservoir, while Fe, Cd, Hg, As, and partial Pb originated from anthropogenic sources, particularly industrial mining and gold tailings.     

Bioaccumulation of Metals in Fish of Salmonidae Family and the Impact on Fish Meat Quality

The study was aimed at determining the levels of metals in water samples and muscles of the fish caught in the Una River basin, located in the northwestern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. For that purpose, three fish species: Brown Trout (Salmo trutta m. fario), Grayling (Thymallus thymallus) and Californian Trout (Salmo gairdneri), together with stem water samples, were analyzed for metal concentrations (Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Mn, Ni, Cu, Cr, Se, Co, Sn, Zn, Fe, Ca, P) during a 2-year period. The fish was captured using electric fishing, nets or fishing equipment. The capture was undertaken on three sites (the river source, the middle flow and the river mouth) of each of the five biggest rivers belonging to the Una River basin (Unac, Krušnica, Sana, Klokot, and Una). The concentrations of metals in each sample were determined via atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In the tested waters, the presence of Mn in concentrations higher than permitted (0.07 mg/l) had been detected. In the tested meat, the following average concentrations of metals (mg/kg) had been found: Pb (0.67), Cd (0.06), Mn (0.65), Ni (0.15), Cu (0.79), Cr (1.05), Se (0.03), Zn (8.92), Fe (5.40), Ca (14.68), and P (10.85). The correlation between Mn concentrations identified in the tested waters and those identified in the meat of Brown Trout was revealed to be statistically significant, which confirms that, over time, bioaccumulation of metals took place. Even though the results were not indicative of contamination, they strongly suggest that constant monitoring of the ecosystems in reference should be implemented.     

Heavy metal concentrations in water, sediment, and tissues of two fish species (Triplohysa pappenheimi, Gobio hwanghensis) from the Lanzhou section of the Yellow River, China

In order to assess the condition of heavy metal pollution in the Yellow River, Lanzhou section, China, and to quantify heavy metal (copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium) contents in tissues (liver, kidney, gills, and muscles) of two fish species (Triplophysa pappenheimi and Gobio hwanghensis), levels of these four metals in the water body, sediment, and tissues of the two fish were measured using inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. The metal levels from this study were compared with the threshold values in the guidelines of water, sediment, and food given by the National Environmental Protection Agency of China, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of America, and the National Standards Management Department of China. We found the mean concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd in THE water body, sediment, and muscles of two fish species were far below the values in guidelines. We also found that the type of metals present and their concentrations varied in different tissues and species. The results suggested that (1) Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd did not contaminate the aquatic ecosystem severely and did not threaten the safety of human consumption in the Yellow River, Lanzhou section, and (2) organs that are sensitive to accumulating heavy metals may be useful to develop bioindicators for monitoring metal contamination. Considering environmental variables, further study is necessary before deciding which fish species or tissue could be the ideal bioindicators for aquatic pollution.     

Distribution of metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu) in fish tissues in two lakes of different trophy in Northwestern Poland

This study presents concentrations of iron, manganese, zinc, and copper in selected tissues of two fish species: pike (Esox lucius L.) and bream (Abramis brama L.) living in lakes Ińsko and Wisola, Northwestern Poland. The lakes differ in their trophic status. The effect of gender and environmental conditions on metals accumulation was also investigated. Metal analyses were performed using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. Considering all studied fish species and tissues, the average metal concentrations (micrograms per gram wet weight) in both lakes occurred in the following ranges: Fe 0.8–240.6, Mn 0.2–8.4, Zn 3.0–185.9, and Cu 0.14–7.76. The lowest levels of the studied metals were always detected in the muscles. The spleen, kidneys, and liver were found to accumulate the highest amounts of Fe. In the case of the other metals, the highest levels were found, as follows: Mn in skin, gills, and gonads, Zn in digestive tract and gills, Cu in liver. Heavy metal content in fish gonads was observed to be sex dependent.     

Monitoring the impact of urban effluents on mineral contents of water and sediments of four sites of the river Ravi, Lahore

We assessed the impact of urban effluents on the concentrations of selected minerals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn, Mn, Ni, and Hg) in river Ravi before and after its passage through Lahore city. Water and sediment samples were collected from three lowly to highly polluted downstream sites (Shahdera (B), Sunder (C), and Balloki (D)) alongside the least polluted upstream site (Siphon (A)) during high and low river flow seasons. All the mineral concentrations increased up to site C but stabilized at site D, showing some recovery as compared to the third sampling site. The trend of mean mineral concentration was significantly higher during the low than the high flow season at all the sites. The mean Hg concentrations approached 0.14 and 0.12 mg/l at site A which increased (%) up to 107 and 25 % at site B, 1,700 and 1,317 % at site C, and 1,185 and 1,177 % at site D during low and high river flows, respectively. All mineral concentrations were much higher in the sediment than the water samples. Mean Cd (917 %), Cr (461 %), Cu (300 %), Fe (254 %), Pb (179 %), Zn (170 %), Mn (723 %), Ni (853 %), and Hg (1,699 %) concentrations were higher in riverbed sediments sampled from site C in comparison with the sample collected at site A during low flow season. The domestic and industrial discharges from Lahore city have created undesirable water qualities during the low river flow season. As majority of the mineral levels in the river Ravi were higher than the permissible and safe levels, this is of immediate concern for riverine fish consumers and the users of water for recreation and even irrigation. The use of these waters may pose health risks, and therefore, urgent intervention strategies are needed to minimize river water pollution and its impact on fish-consuming communities of this study area and beyond.     

Heavy metals in water and in tissues of himri (Carasobarbus luteus) from Orontes (Asi) River, Turkey

Concentrations of heavy metals (Ag, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb ve Zn) were measured in running water and in tissues (muscle, liver, gill, skin and gonads) of one commercially valuable fish species (Carasobarbus luteus) from the Orontes (Asi) River (Güzelburç region) in Hatay (Southeastern Turkey). Results for levels in water compared with national and international water quality guidelines were found at the highest concentrations in international criteria’s WHO, EC and EPA, but Cd, Cu, Ni and Pb were found to exceed permissible level of drinking water in national criteria TSE-266 whereas Fe, Zn and Cr concentrations were within the permissible levels for drinking. The present study showed a significant seasonal variation (p?p?>?0.05), which showed seasonal variation of only Zn (p?C. luteus were below the permissible limit for human consumption, level of Cu being very close to the permissible limit. Consequently, continuous monitoring of heavy metal concentration in edible freshwater fish will be needed in Orontes River.     

Assessment of trace metal concentrations in muscle tissue of certain commercially available fish species from Kayseri,Turkey

Regular consumption of fish has been widely recommended by health authorities. However, it is known that some species accumulate high levels of contaminants including heavy metals (e.g., Hg, Cd, Pb, and As). In this study, Cu, Pb, Co, Ni, Cr, Mn, Cd, and Fe were determined in the muscle tissue of 11 commercially available fish species (Sparus auratus, Dicentrarchus labrax, Mullus barbatus, Belone belone, Psetta maxima, Epinephelus aeneus, Salmothymus, Soleidae, Pomatomus saltatrix, Engraulis encrasicolus, and Sarda sarda) supplied from retailers in Kayseri, Turkey. Determinations were carried out by flame atomic absorption spectrometry after the wet digestion method. The average metal concentrations of the 11 species were determined in the range of 0.54–1.79, 0.82–1.40, 2.38–4.54, 1.23–3.67, 5.01–5.97, 0.77–3.59, 0.48–1.06, and 5.05–122.8 μg/g wet weight for Cu, Pb, Co, Ni, Cr, Mn, Cd, and Fe, respectively. The permissible tolerable daily intake (PTDI) and calculated daily intake (CDI) values were compared, and the calculated daily intake values of the samples were found to be below the established values. Correlations between the metal contents in samples were investigated by performing correlation tests with SPSS 13.0 for windows.     

Distribution and Fractionation of Heavy Metals in Solid Waste from Selected Sites in the Industrial Belt of Delhi, India

Solid waste samples were collected from five small-scale industrial sites in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. These industrial sites represent the regional spread of the industrial belt in the NCT of Delhi. Solid waste samples were digested using aqua-regia and HF in air tight teflon bombs for the quantitative analysis of heavy metals (Hg, Pb, Cd, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu and Zn) by GBC model 902 atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Hg was analysed using hydrid generator attachment. Beside this sequential extraction was used to fractionate five heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cd, Cu and Zn) into six operationally defined phases, viz. water soluble, exchangeable, carbonate-bound, Fe-Mn oxides, organic-bound and residual fractions to ascertain the relative mobility of these metals. The result obtained showed metal concentration to be in the range of Hg 0.42-2.3; Pb 23-530; Cd 014-224; Mn 494-19 964; Fe 35 684-233 119; Ni 192-1534; Cu 3065-10 144 and Zn 116-23 321 (all units in mg kg(-1)) in all the industrial areas studied. The fractionated toxic metals like Pb, Ni and Cd were observed to be in the range of 25-35, 15-50 and 40-50%, respectively, in mobile or bio-available fractions of solid waste. As this waste is often disposed-off by the roadsides, low lying areas, abandoned quarries or in landfill sites which are often not properly planned, thus posing potential risk to ground and surface water quality to millions of people living downstream.     

Heavy metal in water and aquatic organisms from different intertidal ecosystems,Persian Gulf

Intertidal ecosystems are being damaged by anthropogenic activities, particularly in the developing countries. In this study, the load of heavy metals was determined in water, fish, shrimp, and crab collected from four intertidal ecosystems, including coral reef, rocky shore, mangrove forest, and muddy habitat along the Persian Gulf coasts. Generally, the sequence of metal accumulation in the water of coral reef and mangrove forest was Ni > Pb > V > Cd > As > Hg, whereas in muddy habitats and rocky shores, the sequence was Ni > Pb > V > Cd > Hg > As and Ni > V > Pb > As > Hg > Cd, respectively. Water of the coral reef had the highest level of Ni (97.44 μg l^?1), Pb (3.92 μg l^?1), V (10.42 μg l^?1), Cd (3.92 μg l^?1), As (1.87 μg l^?1), and Hg (0.74 μg l^?1). For the most part, the highest concentrations of the studied metals were found in the liver and the gills of Johnius belangerii and the hepatopancreas of Portunus pelagicus and Metapenaus affinis collected from the coral reef ecosystem.