Examining Relationships Between Socioeconomic Factors and Landscape Metrics in the Southern Basin of the Caspian Sea

Socioeconomic forces are not only among the main drivers of landscape dynamics; they are also influenced by landscape patterns. Landscape structure and functions are closely related to natural and social factors. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationships among some human-related factors and landscape ecological metrics as landscape pattern indicators and to identify suitable metrics for modeling these relationships. To this goal, landscape ecological metrics were calculated for each of the 32 counties of Mazandaran and Guilan provinces located in the southern basin of the Caspian Sea using land use/cover maps in class level. Stream network metrics were calculated using a digital elevation model, road density metrics were calculated using map of main roads separately, and significant metrics were selected according to results of correlation tests and factor analysis. The correlations between these metrics and socioeconomic factors were tested, and their relationships were modeled with multiple linear regressions. Significant relationships were found among socioeconomic factors and landscape ecological metrics, and land use/cover data are applicable for modeling socioeconomic factors, especially demographic and employment structure factors. Among the landscape metrics applied in this study, road density, mean patch size, mean nearest neighbor distance, and percentage of a land use/cover class in landscape were important metrics for predicting socioeconomic factors. Our findings indicated that road density metric and percentages of urban class are useful for predicting urban socioeconomic factors and percentage of agriculture and forest classes in the landscape are suitable metrics for predicting rural socioeconomic factors.     

Optimising the sampling effort in riparian surveys

Riparian condition is commonly measured as part of stream health monitoring programs as riparian vegetation provides an intricate linkage between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Field surveys of a riparian zone provide comprehensive riparian attribute data but can be considerably intensive and onerous on resources and workers. Our objective was to assess the impact of reducing the sampling effort on the variation in key riparian health indicators. Subsequently, we developed a non-parametric approach to calculate an information retained (IR) statistic for comparing several constrained systematic sampling schemes to the original survey. The IR statistic is used to select a scheme that reduces the time taken to undertake riparian surveys (and thus potentially the costs) whilst maximising the IR from the original survey. Approximate bootstrap confidence intervals were calculated to improve the inferential capability of the IR statistic. The approach is demonstrated using riparian vegetation indicators collected as part of an aquatic ecosystem health monitoring program in Queensland, Australia. Of the nine alternative sampling designs considered, the sampling design that reduced the sampling intensity per site by sixfold without significantly comprising the quality of the IR, results in halving the time taken to complete a riparian survey at a site. This approach could also be applied to reducing sampling effort involved in monitoring other ecosystem health indicators, where an intensive systematic sampling scheme was initially employed.     

A half-century analysis of landscape dynamics in southern Québec,Canada

We studied landscape dynamics for three time periods (<1950, 1965, and 1997) along a gradient of agricultural intensity from highly intensive agriculture to forested areas in southern Québec. Air photos were analyzed to obtain long-term information on land cover (crop and habitat types) and linear habitats (hedgerows and riparian habitats) and landscape metrics were calculated to quantify changes in habitat configuration. Anthropogenic areas increased in all types of landscapes but mostly occurred in the highly disturbed cash crop dominated landscape. Perennial crops (pasture and hayfields) were largely converted into annual crops (corn and soybean) between 1965 and 1997. The coalescence of annual crop fields resulted in a more homogeneous agricultural landscape. Old fields and forest cover was consistently low and forest fragmentation remained stable through time in the intensive agriculture landscapes. However, forest cover increased and forest fragmentation receded in the forest-dominated landscapes following farm abandonment and the transition of old fields into forests. Tree-dominated hedgerows and riparian habitats increased in areas with intensive agriculture. Observed changes in land cover classes are related to proximate factors, such as surficial deposits and topography. Agriculture intensification occurred in areas highly suitable for agriculture whereas farm abandonment was observed in poor-quality agriculture terrains. Large-scale conversion of perennial crops into annual crops along with continued urbanization exerts strong pressures on residual natural habitats and their inhabiting wildlife. The afforestation process occurring in the more forested landscapes along with the addition of tree-dominated hedgerows and riparian habitats in the agriculture-dominated landscapes should improve landscape ecological value.     

Calibration and validation of a regionally and seasonally stratified macroinvertebrate index for West Virginia wadeable streams

Multimetric indices (MMIs) are routinely used by federal, state, and tribal entities to assess the quality of aquatic resources. Because of their diversity, abundance, ubiquity, and sensitivity to environmental stress, benthic macroinvertebrates are well suited for MMIs. West Virginia has used a statewide family-level stream condition index (WVSCI) since 2002. We describe the development, validation, and application of a geographically- and seasonally partitioned genus-level index of most probable stream status (GLIMPSS) for West Virginia wadeable streams. Natural classification strata were evaluated with reference site communities using mean similarity analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination. Forty-one metrics spanning six ecological categories (richness, composition, tolerance, dominance, trophic groups, and habits) were evaluated for sensitivity, responsiveness, redundancy, range and variability across seasonal (spring and summer) and regional (mountains and plateau) strata. Through a step-wise metric selection process, 8–10 metrics were aggregated to comprise four stratum-specific GLIMPSS models (mountain/plateau and spring/summer). A comparison of GLIMPSS with WVSCI exhibited marked improvements where GLIMPSS detecting greater stream impacts. A variation of the GLIMPSS, which differs only in the family-level taxonomic identification of Chironomidae (GLIMPSS (CF)), was comparable to the full GLIMPSS. These MMIs are robust yet practical tools for evaluating impacts to water quality, instream and riparian habitat, and aquatic wildlife in wadeable riffle-run streams based on sensitivity, responsiveness, precision, and independent validation. These models may be used effectively to detect degradation of the naturally occurring benthic community, assess causes of biological degradation, and plan and evaluate remediation of damaged stream ecosystems.     

Characterization of Benthic Communities and Physical Habitat in the Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced Rivers, California

The primary goal of this study was to characterize physical habitat and benthic communities (macroinvertebrates) in the Stanislaus, Tuolumne and Merced Rivers in California’s San Joaquin Valley in 2003. These rivers have been listed as impaired water bodies (303 (d) list) by the State of California due to the presence of organophosphate (OP) insecticides chlorpyrifos and diazinon, Group A pesticides (i.e., organochlorine pesticides), mercury, or unknown toxicity. Based on 10 instream and riparian physical habitat metrics, total physical habitat scores in the Stanislaus River ranged from 124 to 188 (maximum possible total score is 200). The highest total habitat score was reported at the upstream site. Tuolumne River physical habitat scores ranged from 86 to 167. Various Tuolumne River physical habitat metrics, including total habitat score, increased from downstream to upstream in this river. Merced River physical habitat scores ranged from 121 to 170 with a significant increase in various physical habitat metrics, including total habitat score, reported from downstream to upstream. Channel flow (an instream metric) and bank stability (a riparian metric) were the most important physical habitat metrics influencing the various benthic metrics for all three rivers. Abundance measures of benthic macroinvertebrates (5,100 to 5,400 individuals) were similar among the three rivers in the San Joaquin watershed. Benthic communities in all three rivers were generally dominated by: (1) Baetidae species (mayflies) which are a component of EPT taxa generally considered sensitive to environmental degradation; (2) Chironomidae (midges) which can be either tolerant or sensitive to environmental stressors depending on the species; (3) Ephemerellidae (mayflies) which are considered sensitive to pollution stress; and (4) Naididae (aquatic worms) which are generally considered tolerant to environmental stressors. The presence of 117 taxa in the Stanislaus River, 114 taxa in the Tuolumne River and 96 taxa in the Merced River implies that the benthic communities in these streams are fairly diverse but without a clear definition of benthic community expectations it is unknown if these water bodies are actually impaired.     

Analyzing riparian forest cover changes along the Firniz River in the Mediterranean City of Kahramanmaras in Turkey

Riparian forests adjacent to surface water are important transitional zones which maintain and enrich biodiversity and ensure the sustainability in a forest ecosystem. Also, riparian forests maintain water quality, reduce sediment delivery, enhance habitat areas for aquatic life and wildlife, and provide ecological corridors between the upland and the downstream. However, the riparian ecosystems have been degraded mainly due to human development, forest operations, and agricultural activities. In order to evaluate the impacts of these factors on riparian forests, it is necessary to estimate trends in forest cover changes. This study aims to analyze riparian forest cover changes along the Firniz River located in Mediterranean city of Kahramanmaras in Turkey. Changes in riparian forest cover from 1989 to 2010 have been determined by implementing supervised classification method on a series of Landsat TM imagery of the study area. The results indicated that the classification process applied on 1989 and 2010 images provided overall accuracy of 80.08 and 75 %, respectively. It was found that the most common land use class within the riparian zone was productive forest, followed by degraded forest, agricultural areas, and other land use classes. The results also indicated that the areas of degraded forest and forest openings increased, while productive forest and agricultural areas decreased between the years of 1989 and 2010. The amount of agricultural areas decreased due to the reduction in the population of rural people. According to these results, it can be concluded that special forest management and operation techniques should be implemented to restore the forest ecosystem in riparian areas.     

Probability sampling of stony coral populations in the Florida Keys

Principles of probability survey design were applied to guide large-scale sampling of populations of stony corals and associated benthic taxa in the Florida Keys coral reef ecosystem. The survey employed a two-stage stratified random sampling design that partitioned the 251-km(2) domain by reef habitat types, geographic regions, and management zones. Estimates of the coefficient of variation (ratio of standard error to the mean) for stony coral population density and abundance ranged from 7% to 12% for four of six principal species. These levels of survey precision are among the highest reported for comparable surveys of marine species. Relatively precise estimates were also obtained for octocoral density, sponge frequency of occurrence, and benthic cover of algae and invertebrates. Probabilistic survey design techniques provided a robust framework for estimating population-level metrics and optimizing sampling efficiency.     

Documenting measurement sensitivity and bias of field-measured parameters in water quality monitoring programs

Measurement sensitivity and bias quality control metrics are commonly reported for water-quality parameters measured in the laboratory. Less commonly recognized is that they should also be reported for field-measured parameters. Periodic evaluation helps document data quality and can help serve as early warning if there are problems with methods or techniques that could negatively affect ability to interpret threshold values and trends over time. This study focuses on traditional assessment of bias and introduces a new method for estimating measurement sensitivity of water-quality parameters measured monthly in the field. Alternative measurement sensitivity is a new data quality indicator used to demonstrate how quantifying sensitivity at the measurement level can improve understanding the uncertainty affecting each reported data value. That, in turn, can help interpret the meaning of results from many separate data points measured in the field. In this 30-month study, pH and specific conductance consistently met, and dissolved oxygen did not always meet NPS and USGS quality control standards for bias. Evaluation of dissolved oxygen bias and sensitivity during the study provided impetus to improve calibration techniques that resulted in data that later met quality goals.     

A comparison of two procedures to estimate three basic monitoring landscape metrics for monitoring

An interesting alternative to wall-to-wall mapping approaches for the estimation of landscape metrics is to use sampling. Sample-based approaches are cost-efficient, and measurement errors can be reduced considerably. The previous efforts of sample-based estimation of landscape metrics have mainly been focused on data collection methods, but in this study, we consider two estimation procedures. First, landscape metrics of interest are calculated separately for each sampled image and then the image values are averaged to obtain an estimate of the entire landscape (separated procedure, SP). Second, metric components are calculated in all sampled images and then the aggregated values are inserted into the landscape metric formulas (aggregated procedure, AP). The national land cover map (NLCM) of Sweden, reflecting the status of land cover in the year 2000, was used to provide population information to investigate the statistical performance of the estimation procedures. For this purpose, sampling simulation with a large number of replications was used. For all three landscape metrics, the second procedure (AP) produced a lower relative RMSE and bias than the first one (SP). A smaller sample unit size (50 ha) produced larger bias than a larger one (100 ha), whereas a smaller sample unit size produced a lower variance than a larger sample unit. The efficiency of a metric estimator is highly related to the degree of landscape fragmentation and the selected procedure. Incorporating information from all of the sampled images into a single one (aggregated procedure, AP) is one way to improve the statistical performance of estimators.     

Methods development and use of macroinvertebrates as indicators of ecological conditions for streams in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands Region

The Mid-Atlantic Highlands Assessment (MAHA) included the sampling of macroinvertebrates from 424 wadeable stream sites to determine status and trends, biological conditions, and water quality in first through third order streams in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands Region (MAHR) of the United States in 1993–1995. We identified reference and impaired sites using water chemistry and habitat criteria and evaluated a set of candidate macroinvertebrate metrics using a stepwise process. This process examined several metric characteristics, including ability of metrics to discriminate reference and impaired sites, relative scope of impairment, correlations with chemical and habitat indicators of stream disturbance, redundancy with other metrics, and within-year variability. Metrics that performed well were compared with metrics currently being used by three states in the region: Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. Some of the metrics used by these states did not perform well when evaluated using regional data, while other metrics used by all three states in some form, specifically number of taxa, number of EPT taxa, and Hilsenhoff Biotic Index, performed well overall. Reasons for discrepancies between state and regional evaluations of metrics are explored. We also provide a set of metrics that, when used in combination, may provide a useful assessment of stream conditions in the MAHR.     

Assessing the ecological condition of streams in a southeastern Brazilian basin using a probabilistic monitoring design

Prompt assessment and management actions are required if we are to reduce the current rapid loss of habitat and biodiversity worldwide. Statistically valid quantification of the biota and habitat condition in water bodies are prerequisites for rigorous assessment of aquatic biodiversity and habitat. We assessed the ecological condition of streams in a southeastern Brazilian basin. We quantified the percentage of stream length in good, fair, and poor ecological condition according to benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage. We assessed the risk of finding degraded ecological condition associated with degraded aquatic riparian physical habitat condition, watershed condition, and water quality. We describe field sampling and implementation issues encountered in our survey and discuss design options to remedy them. Survey sample sites were selected using a spatially balanced, stratified random design, which enabled us to put confidence bounds on the ecological condition estimates derived from the stream survey. The benthic condition index indicated that 62 % of stream length in the basin was in poor ecological condition, and 13 % of stream length was in fair condition. The risk of finding degraded biological condition when the riparian vegetation and forests in upstream catchments were degraded was 2.5 and 4 times higher, compared to streams rated as good for the same stressors. We demonstrated that the GRTS statistical sampling method can be used routinely in Brazilian rain forests and other South American regions with similar conditions. This survey establishes an initial baseline for monitoring the condition and trends of streams in the region.     

Relative Costs and Benefits of a Continuous and a Periodic Forest Inventory in Minnesota

We show that the Annual Forest Inventory System (AFIS) being developed by the USDA Forest Service and tested in the state of Minnesota is no more costly than the periodic Minnesota forest inventory (12 year measurement cycle). Since very useful results could be generated with AFIS every 4 years in addition to the results from the periodic survey, a continuous inventory would be cost effective. Periodic surveys yield more precise estimates within the first few years of the full survey but afterwards the annual survey would be more precise. Where the changeover in precision occurs still needs to be determined. This cost-neutral advantage of AFIS is quite important to note since the USFS has decided to go to annualized inventories such as AFIS this year.     

Effects of Forest Management Practices on Mid-Atlantic Streams

Agricultural and urban land use activities have affected stream ecosystems throughout the mid-Atlantic region. However, over 60% of the mid-Atlantic region is forested. A study was conducted to investigate the effects of management practices on forested stream ecosystems throughout the mid-Atlantic region. The study consisted of two phases: Phase 1 was a literature synthesis of information available on the effects of forest management practices on stream hydrology, erosion and sedimentation, riparian habitat alteration, chemical addition, and change in biotic diversity in the mid-Atlantic region. In Phase 2, data from mid-Atlantic streams were analyzed to assess the effects of forest land use on stream quality at the regional scale. Typically, it is the larger order streams in which monitoring and assessment occurs—3^rd order or higher streams. The impacts of forest management practices, particularly hydrologic modifications and riparian buffer zone alteration, occur predominantly in first and second order streams with cumulative impacts translating to higher order streams. Based on the literature review and mid-Atlantic Highland streams analysis, there are short-term (e.g., 2 to 5 years) effects of forest management practices on stream quality at local scales. However, signatures of cumulative effects from forest management practices are not apparent at regional scales in the Highlands. In general, forested land use is associated with good stream quality in the region compared with other land use practices.     

A Stream–Wetland–Riparian (SWR) index for assessing condition of aquatic ecosystems in small watersheds along the Atlantic slope of the eastern U.S.

As part of a regional study by the Atlantic Slope Consortium (ASC) to develop ecological and socioeconomic indicators of aquatic ecosystem condition, we developed and tested a protocol for rapidly assessing condition of the stream, wetland, and riparian components of freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Aspects of hydrology, vegetation, in-stream and wetland characteristics, and on-site stressors were measured in the field. The resulting metrics were used to develop an index of overall condition, termed the Stream–Wetland–Riparian (SWR) Index. Values of this Index were compared to existing biotic indices and chemical measures, and to a Landscape Index created using satellite-based land cover data and a geographic information system (GIS). Comparisons were made at several levels of spatial aggregation and resolution, from site to small watershed. The SWR Index and associated Landscape Indices were shown to correlate highly with biological indicators of stream condition at the site level and for small contributing areas. The landscape patterns prevalent throughout the entire watershed do not necessarily match the patterns found adjacent to the stream network. We suggest a top-down approach that managers can use to sequentially apply these methods, to first prioritize watersheds based on a relative condition measure provided by the Landscape Index, and then assess condition and diagnose stressors of aquatic resources at the subwatershed and site level.     

Riparian vegetation assessment of Cauvery River Basin of South India

The Cauvery river basin of South India has a large phyto-floristic wealth, rightfully enough to constitute a separate phyto-geographic unit. Increase in the anthropogenic pressures within the river basin and surrounding landscapes have persistently stressed the riparian ecosystem structure adversely, besides altering its composition. The objective of this study was to examine the present status of riparian vegetation along the Cauvery river basin, in response to anthropogenic pressures. For vegetation analysis, the riparian forest coming in the middle stretch of Cauvery river was categorized into two zones, viz., forest zone covering ~54 km stretch and agroecosystem zone covering ~80 km stretch. In each zone, tree species were quantified using transects at 8-km interval. Overall tree species accounting for both forest and agroecosystem were recorded and compared. The results indicate that the mean density and basal area of trees per plot were higher in the forest zone than agroecosystem zone. The Shannon–Weiner diversity of forest zone is 4.6, which is higher than agroecosystem. In addition, species composition indicated a relatively low or poor similarity between the two zones. The vegetation density and site disturbance scores for all the study sites reveals that sand mining and grazing areas have exerted negative impact on riparian forest. The results of the present study clearly brought out the need for preparing and implementing site-specific conservation plans for riparian ecosystem.     

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Responses to Increasing Levels of Cattle Grazing in Blue Ridge Mountain Streams, Virginia, USA

The relationship between benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages and cattle density was assessed from fall 2002 through spring 2004 in five small streams that represented a gradient of cattle grazing intensity. All study stream reaches were in pasture with no woody riparian vegetation, but varied in the intensity of cattle grazing (0 cattle ha⁻¹ at site 1 to 2.85 cattle ha⁻¹ at site 5). Regression analysis indicated highly significant and strong macroinvertebrate metric responses to cattle density during most sampling periods. The majority of metrics responded negatively to increased grazing, while a few (total taxa richness, number of sensitive taxa, and % collector filterers) increased along the gradient before declining at the most heavily grazed sites. Total number of sensitive taxa and % Coleoptera had the strongest relationship with cattle density throughout the study period. During some sampling periods, nearly 80% of the variation in these metrics was explained by cattle density. The elmid beetle, Oulimnius, had a particularly strong negative response to the grazing gradient. Study site groupings based on taxa composition, using detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), indicated that benthic samples collected from the reference site and light rotational grazing site were more similar in macroinvertebrate taxa composition than samples collected from the intermediate grazing and heavy grazing sites. Our findings demonstrate that biological integrity, as measured by benthic macroinvertebrate metrics and assemblage composition, is highly related to cattle density in small streams in the Blue Ridge mountains, Virginia, USA. This suggests that the degree of agricultural intensity should be given consideration in stream assessments, as well as land use planning and regulatory decisions.     

The influence of suburban land use on habitat and biotic integrity of coastal Rhode Island streams

Watershed land use in suburban areas can affect stream biota through degradation of instream habitat, water quality, and riparian vegetation. By monitoring stream biotic communities in various geographic regions, we can better understand and conserve our watershed ecosystems. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between watershed land use and the integrity of benthic invertebrate communities in eight streams that were assessed over a 3-year period (2001-2003). Sites were selected from coastal Rhode Island watersheds along a residential land-use gradient (4-59%). Using the rapid bioassessment protocol, we collected biological, physicochemical, habitat, and nutrient data from wadeable stream reaches and compared metrics of structure and integrity. Principal component analyses showed significant negative correlation of indicators for stream physicochemical, habitat, and instream biodiversity with increasing residential land use (RLU) in the watershed. The physicochemical variables that were most responsive to percent RLU were conductivity, instream habitat, nitrate, and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN). The positive correlation of DIN with percent RLU indicated an anthropogenic source of pollution affecting the streams. The biotic composition of the streams shifted from sensitive to insensitive taxa as percent RLU increased; the most responsive biological variables were percent Ephemeroptera, percent Scrapers, percent Insects, and the Hilsenhoff biotic index. These data show the importance of land management and conservation at the watershed scale to sustaining the biotic integrity of coastal stream ecosystems.     

Characterizing the forest fragmentation of Canada’s national parks

Characterizing the amount and configuration of forests can provide insights into habitat quality, biodiversity, and land use. The establishment of protected areas can be a mechanism for maintaining large, contiguous areas of forests, and the loss and fragmentation of forest habitat is a potential threat to Canada’s national park system. Using the Earth Observation for Sustainable Development of Forests (EOSD) land cover product (EOSD LC 2000), we characterize the circa 2000 forest patterns in 26 of Canada’s national parks and compare these to forest patterns in the ecological units surrounding these parks, referred to as the greater park ecosystem (GPE). Five landscape pattern metrics were analyzed: number of forest patches, mean forest patch size (hectare), standard deviation of forest patch size (hectare), mean forest patch perimeter-to-area ratio (meters per hectare), and edge density of forest patches (meters per hectare). An assumption is often made that forests within park boundaries are less fragmented than the surrounding GPE, as indicated by fewer forest patches, a larger mean forest patch size, less variability in forest patch size, a lower perimeter-to-area ratio, and lower forest edge density. Of the 26 national parks we analyzed, 58% had significantly fewer patches, 46% had a significantly larger mean forest patch size (23% were not significantly different), and 46% had a significantly smaller standard deviation of forest patch size (31% were not significantly different), relative to their GPEs. For forest patch perimeter-to-area ratio and forest edge density, equal proportions of parks had values that were significantly larger or smaller than their respective GPEs and no clear trend emerged. In summary, all the national parks we analyzed, with the exception of the Georgian Bay Islands, were found to be significantly different from their corresponding GPE for at least one of the five metrics assessed, and 50% of the 26 parks were significantly different from their respective GPEs for all of the metrics assessed. The EOSD LC 2000 provides a heretofore unavailable dataset for characterizing broad trends in forest fragmentation in Canada’s national parks and in their surrounding GPEs. The interpretation of forest fragmentation metrics must be guided by the underlying land cover context, as many forested ecosystems in Canada are naturally fragmented due to wetlands and topography. Furthermore, interpretation must also consider the management context, as some parks are designed to preserve fragmented habitats. An analysis of forest pattern such as that described herein provides a baseline, from which changes in fragmentation patterns over time could be monitored, enabled by earth observation data.     

An ecological function and services approach to total maximum daily load (TMDL) prioritization

Prioritizing total maximum daily load (TMDL) development starts by considering the scope and severity of water pollution and risks to public health and aquatic life. Methodology using quantitative assessments of in-stream water quality is appropriate and effective for point source (PS) dominated discharge, but less so in watersheds with mostly nonpoint source (NPS) related impairments. For NPSs, prioritization in TMDL development and implementation of associated best management practices should focus on restoration of ecosystem physical functions, including how restoration effectiveness depends on design, maintenance and placement within the watershed. To refine the approach to TMDL development, regulators and stakeholders must first ask if the watershed, or ecosystem, is at risk of losing riparian or other ecologically based physical attributes and processes. If so, the next step is an assessment of the spatial arrangement of functionality with a focus on the at-risk areas that could be lost, or could, with some help, regain functions. Evaluating stream and wetland riparian function has advantages over the traditional means of water quality and biological assessments for NPS TMDL development. Understanding how an ecosystem functions enables stakeholders and regulators to determine the severity of problem(s), identify source(s) of impairment, and predict and avoid a decline in water quality. The Upper Reese River, Nevada, provides an example of water quality impairment caused by NPS pollution. In this river basin, stream and wetland riparian proper functioning condition (PFC) protocol, water quality data, and remote sensing imagery were used to identify sediment sources, transport, distribution, and its impact on water quality and aquatic resources. This study found that assessments of ecological function could be used to generate leading (early) indicators of water quality degradation for targeting pollution control measures, while traditional in-stream water quality monitoring lagged in response to the deterioration in ecological functions.