Implied-consent laws: A review of the literature and examination of current problems and related statutes

Problem

A substantial proportion of drivers arrested for DUI refuse the BAC test, thereby reducing the likelihood that they will be convicted and potentially increasing the number of high-risk multiple offenders contributing to alcohol-related crashes.

Method

This paper reviews the information on the current status of implied-consent laws (which impose a sanction on offenders who refuse the BAC test) in the 50 states and the other relevant traffic safety laws and policies that may influence state refusal rates.

Results

Although there appears to be only a weak relationship between state refusal rates and crash rates, there is strong evidence that BAC test refusals significantly compromise the arrest, prosecution, and sentencing of DUI suspects and the overall enforcement of DUI laws in the United States.

Discussion

Laws and policies that may reduce the number of refusals are discussed.

Impact on industry

Alcohol-related crash injuries are an important cost problem for U.S. industry because of property damage from crashes, crash injuries to employees that raise health costs, or the reduction of time on the job resulting from a highway injury.     

Are drivers' comparative risk judgments about speeding realistic?

Introduction

This study focused on comparative judgments about speeding risks among young drivers who have a high risk of being involved in a traffic accident.

Method

We examined (a) how these drivers assess their risk of sanctions and their risk of causing an automobile crash because of speeding in comparison to the estimated risks of other drivers, and (b) how realistic their comparative risk judgments are. We measured the relationship between the drivers' comparative risk judgments, self-reported speeding, and driving-related sensation-seeking. We hypothesized that (a) they would think they have less risk of sanctions and of causing a car accident than others, and (b) their comparative judgments of speeding risks would be linked to self-reported speeding and driving-related sensation-seeking. The study was based on a computerized questionnaire survey conducted with 3,002 young drivers (mean age = 22.3) administered by professional investigators.

Results

The results confirmed our hypotheses.

Impact on Industry

In order to improve the effectiveness of prevention measures and to evaluate the effect of them, road-safety interventions should take into account comparative risk judgments about the targeted risk behavior.     

Risks older drivers pose to themselves and to other road users

Problem

Studies have shown that older drivers have high death rates and lower rates of involvement in crashes that kill others; but most studies have not considered drivers' responsibility for their crashes, and many have considered only one particular measure of risk.

Method

This study examines risks that drivers of various ages pose to themselves and to others on per-driver, per-trip, and per-mile bases, taking responsibility for crashes into account, using United States fatal crash data from 1999 through 2003 and travel estimates from 2001.

Results

Relative to other age groups, drivers aged 85 and older face the highest risk of their own death, whereas teens pose the greatest risk to passengers, occupants of other vehicles, and non-motorists.

Discussion

The oldest drivers pose more risk to other road users than middle-aged drivers do; the degree of their excess risk depends strongly upon how risk is measured.

Impact on industry

These results demonstrate the importance of keeping clear the meaning and implications of various risk measures.     

A traffic safety evaluation of California's traffic violator school citation dismissal policy

Introduction

This study evaluated California's traffic violator school (TVS) citation dismissal policy.

Method

This study identified and compared two large samples of drivers either completing a TVS (N = 210,015) or convicted of a traffic citation (N = 168,563).

Results

Prior to adjudication, the TVS group had characteristics (e.g., lower prior conviction rate and smaller proportion of males) that were predictive of a lower subsequent crash risk. However, the TVS group exhibited significantly more crashes than did the convicted group in the subsequent one-year period. The difference (4.83%) increased to 10% after adjusting for the more favorable characteristics of the TVS group. The TVS group also had a higher adjusted subsequent crash rate at each prior driver record entry level, reflecting a loss in the general and specific deterrence of the non-conviction masked status of TVS dismissed citations. It was reported that the TVS dismissal policy results in approximately 12,300 additional crashes annually with economic costs of approximately $398,000,000.

Conclusions

The avoidance of licensing actions resulting from the dismissal policy assists in explaining why the driving public is exposed to an increased crash risk. A number of recommendations are offered to reduce the negative traffic safety impact of the TVS citation dismissal policy.     

Crash involvement during the different phases of the New Zealand Graduated Driver Licensing System (GDLS)

Introduction

The New Zealand Graduated Driver Licensing System (GDLS) is designed to allow novice drivers to gain driving experience under conditions of reduced risk.

Method

To examine the effectiveness of the GDLS, an analysis of how the crash involvement of novice drivers changes as drivers move through the GDLS was undertaken. Crash profiles were created by data matching the New Zealand license and crash databases, covering a time period from 1999-2006.

Results

The crash profiles show that the initial learner period of the GDLS is relatively safe and the time at which novice drivers have the highest rate of crash involvement is during the first few months of solo driving. Analysis using logistic regression also showed an effect of age and gender, with higher crash involvement associated with younger drivers and males. In addition, individuals who gained a full license within 12-18 months of holding a restricted license, due to completion of a time-discount associated educational program, had a higher level of involvement in crashes than individuals who gained a full license after 18 months.

Conclusions

The crash profiles provide an insight into the crash risk associated with different phases of the New Zealand GDLS.

Impact on Industry

Increasing the age at which drivers first begin to solo drive and the removal of the time-discount associated with completion of an educational program should be considered.     

Absence behavior as traffic crash predictor in bus drivers

Problem

Various indicators of health have been shown to be associated with traffic crash involvement. As general health is also related to absence from work, the latter variable may be more strongly related to crashes, especially for professional drivers.

Method

Bus driver absence from work was analyzed in association with their crash records. Two British samples and one Swedish sample were used.

Results

One of the British samples yielded fair correlations between crash record and absence, while for the other the effect was restricted to the first three months of driving. The Swedish data had effects in the expected direction but these were not significant.

Discussion

The use of an indirect, overall measurement of health, may be a viable method for predicting the traffic crash involvement for professional drivers, although replications are needed in larger samples and other populations.

Impact on industry

The use of absence records for the identification of at risk drivers would seem to be a simple and useful method for companies with major fleets, and it also shows the importance of promoting employee health and well being at work as a potential method of reducing the cost, not only of absenteeism, but also of crashes in company vehicles.     

The effects of minimum legal drinking age 21 laws on alcohol-related driving in the United States

Objective

To examine trends in alcohol consumption and alcohol-related crashes among people younger than 21 in the United States and to review evidence on the effects of minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) laws.

Methods

Trends in alcohol-related crashes and alcohol consumption among young people were examined, and studies on the effects of lowering and raising the drinking age were reviewed.

Results

MLDA laws underwent many changes during the 20th century in the United States. Since July 1988, the MLDA has been 21 in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Surveys tracking alcohol consumption among high school students and young adults found that drinking declined since the late 1970 s, and most of the decline occurred by the early 1990 s. These were the years when states were establishing, or reinstating, a MLDA-21. Among fatally injured drivers ages 16-20, the percentage with positive BACs declined from 61% in 1982 to 31% in 1995, a bigger decline than for older age groups; declines occurred among the ages directly affected by raising MLDAs (ages 18-20) and among young teenagers not directly affected (ages 16-17). Almost all studies designed specifically to gauge the effects of drinking age changes show MLDAs of 21 reduce drinking, problematic drinking, drinking and driving, and alcohol-related crashes among young people. Yet many underage people still drink, many drink and drive, and alcohol remains an important risk factor in serious crashes of young drivers, especially as they progress through the teenage years. Stepped-up enforcement of MLDA and drinking and driving laws can reduce underage drinking. Recent efforts to lower MLDAs to 18 and issue licenses to drink upon completion of alcohol education have gained local and national media attention. There is no evidence that alcohol education can even partially replace the effect of MLDA-21.

Conclusions

The cause and effect relationship between MLDAs of 21 and reductions in highway crashes is clear. Initiatives to lower the drinking age to 18 ignore the demonstrated public health benefits of MLDAs of 21.

Impact on Industry

Lowering the drinking age to 18 will increase highway crash deaths among young people.     

Predicting driver drowsiness using vehicle measures: Recent insights and future challenges

Introduction

Driver drowsiness is a significant contributing factor to road crashes. One approach to tackling this issue is to develop technological countermeasures for detecting driver drowsiness, so that a driver can be warned before a crash occurs.

Method

The goal of this review is to assess, given the current state of knowledge, whether vehicle measures can be used to reliably predict drowsiness in real time.

Results

Several behavioral experiments have shown that drowsiness can have a serious impact on driving performance in controlled, experimental settings. However, most of those studies have investigated simple functions of performance (such as standard deviation of lane position) and results are often reported as averages across drivers, and across time.

Conclusions

Further research is necessary to examine more complex functions, as well as individual differences between drivers.

Impact on Industry

A successful countermeasure for predicting driver drowsiness will probably require the setting of multiple criteria, and the use of multiple measures.     

Validity of police-reported alcohol involvement in fatal motor carrier crashes in the United States between 1982 and 2005

Objective

To examine the validity of police-reported alcohol data for drivers involved in fatal motor carrier crashes.

Material and Methods

We determined the availability of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and police-reported alcohol data on 157,702 drivers involved in fatal motor carrier crashes between 1982 - 2005 using Fatality Analysis and Reporting System (FARS) data. Drivers were categorized as motor carrier drivers if they operated a vehicle with a gross vehicle weight rating of greater than 26,000 pounds. Otherwise, they were classified as non motor carrier drivers. The sensitivity and specificity of police-reported alcohol involvement were estimated for both driver types.

Results

Of the 157,702 drivers, 18% had no alcohol information, 15% had BAC results, 42% had police-reported alcohol data, and 25% had both. Alcohol information varied significantly by driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics. For example, motor carrier drivers were significantly more likely (51%) to have BAC testing results compared to non motor carrier drivers (31%) (p < 0.001). The sensitivity of police-reported alcohol involvement for a BAC level ≥ 0.08 was 83% (95% CI 79%, 86%) for motor carrier drivers and 90% (95% CI 89%, 90%) for non motor carrier drivers. The specificity rates were 96% (95% CI 95%, 96%) and 91% (95% CI 90%, 91%), respectively.

Conclusions

The sensitivity and specificity of police-reported alcohol involvement are reasonably high for drivers involved in fatal motor carrier crashes. Further research is needed to determine the extent to which the accuracy of police-reported alcohol involvement may be overestimated because of verification bias.

Impact on the Industry

Based on the results of this study, the federal government should continue to work with states to strengthen their strategies to increase chemical testing of all drivers involved in fatal crashes.     

“Safety is everyone's job:” The key to safety on a large university construction site

Problem

Construction risk management is challenging.

Method

We combined data on injuries, costs, and hours worked, obtained through a Rolling Owner-Controlled Insurance Program (ROCIP), with data from focus groups, interviews, and field observations, to prospectively study injuries and hazard control on a large university construction project.

Results

Lost-time injury rates (1.0/200,000 hours worked) were considerably lower than reported for the industry, and there were no serious falls from height. Safety was considered in the awarding of contracts and project timeline development; hazard management was iterative. A top-down management commitment to safety was clearly communicated to, and embraced by, workers throughout the site.

Discussion and Impact

A better understanding of how contracting relationships, workers' compensation, and liability insurance arrangements influence safety could shift risk management efforts from worker behaviors to a broader focus on how these programs and relationships affect incentives and disincentives for workplace safety and health.     

Fatal crash trends for Australian young drivers 1997-2007: Geographic and socioeconomic differentials

Background

Little has been published on changes in young driver fatality rates over time. This paper examines differences in Australian young driver fatality rates over the last decade, examining important risk factors including place of residence and socioeconomic status (SES).

Methods

Young driver (17-25 years) police-recorded passenger vehicle crashes were extracted from New South Wales State records from 1997-2007. Rurality of residence and SES were classified into three levels based on drivers’ residential postcode: urban, regional, or rural; and high, moderate, or low SES areas. Geographic and SES disparities in trends of fatality rates were examined by the generalized linear model. Chi-square trend test was used to examine the distributions of posted speed limits, drinking driving, fatigue, seatbelt use, vehicle age, night-time driving, and the time from crash to death across rurality and socioeconomic status.

Results

Young driver fatality rate significantly decreased 5% per year (p < 0.05); however, stratified analyses (by rurality and by SES) showed that only the reduction among urban drivers was significant (average 5% decrease per year, p < 0.01). The higher relative risk of fatality for rural versus urban drivers, and for drivers of low versus high SES remained unchanged over the last decade. High posted speed limits, fatigue, drink driving and seatbelt non-use were significantly associated with rural fatalities, whereas high posted speed limit, fatigue, and driving an older vehicle were significantly related to low SES fatality.

Conclusion

The constant geographic and SES disparities in young driver fatality rates highlight safety inequities for those living in rural areas and those of low SES. Better targeted interventions are needed, including attention to behavioral risk factors and vehicle age.     

Effects of in-vehicle monitoring on the driving behavior of teenagers

Objectives

The objective was to determine if teenage driving behavior improves when a monitoring and feedback device is installed in the teen's vehicle.

Methods

Vehicles of 85 teenage drivers were fit with a device that detected all instances of sudden braking/acceleration, speeding, and nonuse of seat belts. Drivers were assigned randomly to one of four research groups, differing in whether or not an alert sounded in the vehicle and whether or not parents were given access to websites containing notification records. Time trends in event rates per mile traveled were compared using Poisson regression.

Results

Seat belt use improved when violations were reported to the parent websites, and improved even more when in-vehicle alerts were activated. Consistent reductions in speeding were achieved only when teenagers received alerts about their speeding behavior, believed their speeding behavior would not be reported to parents if corrected, and when parents were being notified of such behavior by report cards.

Conclusions

Electronic monitoring of teenage drivers can reduce the incidence of risky behavior, especially seat belt nonuse. More complicated behavior is more difficult to change, however.

Impact on Industry

Parent participation is key to successful behavioral modification, but it is yet to be determined how best to encourage such participation.     

Increasing self-awareness among older drivers: The role of self-screening

Introduction

Self-screening by older drivers has shown considerable promise for increasing self-awareness about functional abilities associated with safe driving. The purpose of this study was to improve upon existing self-screening instruments by focusing entirely on “health concerns” that affect driving - that is, the symptoms that people experience due to medical conditions and the medications used to treat them - rather than the medical conditions or medications themselves.

Method

A computer-based, easy-to-use self-screening instrument for older drivers was developed to provide individualized feedback intended to increase self-awareness about declines in driving-related abilities, as well as suggestions for behavioral changes or safety tips to maintain safe driving, further evaluation from a physician/health professional, and vehicle modifications to help compensate for driving-related declines.

Results

This paper describes the development of the self-screening instrument and summarizes findings relative to increasing self-awareness among older drivers. This research represents an important first step in improving self-awareness among older drivers through self-screening.     

What vehicle features are considered important when buying an automobile? An examination of driver preferences by age and gender

Introduction

Certain vehicle features can help drivers avoid collisions and/or protect occupants in the event of a crash, and therefore, might play an important role when deciding which vehicle to purchase. The objective of this study was to examine the importance attributed to key vehicle features (including safety) that drivers consider when buying a car and its association with age and gender.

Methods

A sample of 2,002 Canadian drivers aged 18 years and older completed a survey that asked them to rank the importance of eight vehicle features if they were to purchase a vehicle (storage, mileage, safety, price, comfort, performance, design, and reliability). ANOVA tests were performed to: (a) determine if there were differences in the level of importance between features and; (b) examine the effect of age and gender on the importance attributed to these features.

Results

Of the features examined, safety and reliability were the most highly rated in terms of importance, whereas design and performance had the lowest rating. Differences in safety and performance across age groups were dependent on gender. This effect was most evident in the youngest and oldest age groups.

Conclusions

Safety and reliability were considered the most important features. Age and gender play a significant role in explaining the importance of certain features.

Impact on Industry

Targeted efforts for translating safety-related information to the youngest and oldest consumers should be emphasized due to their high collision, injury, and fatality rates.     

Age and gender differences in conviction and crash occurrence subsequent to being directed to Iowa's driver improvement program

Introduction

This paper investigates potential gender and age differences in conviction and crash occurrence subsequent to being directed to attend Iowa's Driver Improvement Program (DIP).

Methods

Binary logit models were developed to investigate the factors that influence conviction occurrence after DIP by gender and age. Because of the low crash occurrence subsequent to DIP, association rules were applied to investigate the factors that influence crash occurrence subsequent to DIP, in lieu of econometric models.

Results

There were statistical significant differences by driver gender, age, and conviction history in the likelihood of subsequent convictions. However, this paper found no association between DIP outcome, crash history, and crash occurrence.

Impact on industry

Evaluating the differences in conviction and crash occurrence subsequent to DIP between female and male drivers, and among different age groups can lead to improvements of the effectiveness of DIPs and help to identify low-cost intervention measures, customized based on drivers’ gender and age, for improving driving behaviors.     

Older driver retraining: An updated systematic review of evidence of effectiveness

Problem and Objective

The number of older drivers who might benefit from driver retraining is growing. A previous review on the effectiveness of older driver retraining included intervention studies up to 2004. The objective was to perform an updated systematic review of the effectiveness of older driver retraining for improving driving-related skills and reducing crash rates.

Method

Articles published from 2004-2008 were grouped according to the intervention provided and outcome studied. Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) were appraised using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale and scored for quality according to their internal validity. Each intervention's effectiveness was then rated and assigned a level of evidence by combining pre- and post- 2004 findings.

Results

Three RCTs and one matched-pairs cohort design met the inclusion criteria. There is strong evidence (Level 1a) that education combined with on-road training improves driving performance and moderate evidence (Level 1b) that it improves knowledge. There is moderate evidence (Level 1b) that physical retraining improves driving performance. There is moderate evidence (Level 1b) that an educational intervention curriculum alone is not effective in reducing crashes.

Summary

The updated evidence on the effectiveness of retraining aimed at older drivers is sufficiently encouraging to merit assertive health promotion actions regarding intervention and program planning.

Impact on Industry

These positive findings warrant a comprehensive plan that has both behavioral and monetary incentives encouraging older driver participation in programs aimed at driver safety.     

Is a hands-free phone safer than a handheld phone?

Introduction

Although it is becoming more and more accepted that driving while talking on a cell phone can be hazardous, most jurisdictions are making handheld phone use illegal while allowing hands-free phone use.

Methods

The scientific literature exploring the effects of these two types of cell phone use on driving and driving-related performance is reviewed here.

Results

Our review shows that talking on the phone, regardless of phone type, has negative impacts on performance especially in detecting and identifying events. Performance while using a hands-free phone was rarely found to be better than when using a handheld phone. Some studies found that drivers compensate for the deleterious effects of cell phone use when using a handheld phone but neglect to do so when using a hands-free phone.

Impact on Industry

Current research does not support the decision to allow hands-free phone use while driving.     

Examining traffic crash injury severity at unsignalized intersections

Introduction

This study presents multiple approaches to the analysis of crash injury severity at three- and four-legged unsignalized intersections in the state of Florida from 2003 until 2006. An extensive data collection process was conducted for this study.

Method

The dataset used in the analysis included 2,043 unsignalized intersections in six counties in the state of Florida. For the scope of this study, there were three approaches explored. The first approach dealt with the five injury levels, and an ordered probit model was fitted. The second approach was an aggregated one, and dealt with only the severe versus non-severe crash levels, and a binary probit model was used. The third approach dealt with fitting a nested logit model. Results from the three fitted approaches were shown and discussed, and a comparison between the three approaches was shown.

Results

Several important factors affecting crash severity at unsignalized intersections were identified. These include the traffic volume on the major approach, and the number of through lanes on the minor approach (surrogate measure for traffic volume), and among the geometric factors, the upstream and downstream distance to the nearest signalized intersection, left and right shoulder width, number of left turn movements on the minor approach, and number of right and left turn lanes on the major approach. As for driver factors, young and very young at-fault drivers were associated with the least fatal probability compared to other age groups.

Impact on industry

The analysis identified some countermeasures to reduce injury severity at unsignalized intersections. The spatial covariates showed the importance of including safety awareness campaigns for speeding enforcement. Also, having a 90-degree intersection design is the most appropriate safety design for reducing severity. Moreover, the assurance of marking stop lines at unsignalized intersections is very essential.     

Survival risk factors for fatal injured car and motorcycle drivers in single alcohol-related and alcohol-unrelated vehicle crashes

Introduction

A high percentage of drivers who die as a result of a single vehicle crash are under the influence of alcohol. We aimed to better understand the prevalence of these fatalities and the ratio of death to injuries based on various risk factors. We focused on alcohol-related and -unrelated single-vehicle crashes to investigate the influence of such risk factors on the time until death for car and motorcycle drivers.

Methods

We combined data from national police reports and a vital registration database in Taiwan. Survival analysis using Cox regression models was used to identify the risk factors of time until death.

Results

Overall, nearly 60% of car driver fatalities and 40% of motorcycle driver fatalities involved the consumption of alcohol. Survival analysis of single-vehicle crashes suggested that the traffic island separation between a car moving at a higher speed and motorcycle traffic resulted in a higher risk of death over time for motorcycle drivers who consumed alcohol. The factors attributed to a higher risk of death over time for motorcycle drivers were older age, crashing into trees, night-time driving, driving on curved roads, and driving on local roads. Driving without restraints and driving on roads with higher speed limits attributed to a higher risk of death over time for car drivers.

Conclusions

The factors that influence the risk of death over time in a motor-vehicle accident involving alcohol depended on different elements, which should each be considered when attempting to reduce this risk.

Impact on Industry

More efforts should be made to investigate the various risk factors in areas with large motorcycle populations.     

An ethnography of low-income mothers' safeguarding efforts

Problem

Children living in lower-income environments are at greater risk for unintentional injuries. However, little is known about the safety practices of mothers living in low-income situations.

Method

This ethnographic study explored the child safeguarding experiences of low-income mothers using in-home interviews and observations.

Results

Mothers' safeguarding efforts included cognitive and emotional work, child directed work, and work directed at the physical and social environments. Factors that influenced the women's safeguarding included the quality of the indoor space, availability of safe play space, traffic hazards, sibling interactions, child care supports, relationships with neighbors, and trust in community services.

Discussion

These findings have implications for the conceptualization of safeguarding practices and provide insight about the experiences of mothers living on low-incomes.

Impact on Industry

When developing safety interventions, program planners should consider the views and practices of mothers as well as contextual factors in the physical and social environments.