The effect of distal learning,outcome, and proximal goals on a moderately complex task

The effects of learning versus outcome distal goals in conjunction with proximal goals were investigated in a laboratory setting using a class‐scheduling task. The participants (n = 96) needed to acquire knowledge in order to perform the task correctly. A ‘do your best’ outcome goal led to higher performance than the assignment of a specific, difficult outcome goal. However, the assignment of a specific, difficult learning goal led to higher performance than urging people to ‘do their best.’ Goal commitment was higher in the learning goal than in the outcome goal condition. The correlation between task‐relevant strategies discovered and performance was positive and significant. The number of task‐relevant strategies implemented by participants assigned a distal learning goal in conjunction with proximal goals was higher than in any other goal condition. Setting a distal outcome or learning goal that included proximal outcome goals, however, did not lead to higher performance than the setting of a distal outcome or learning goal alone. Self‐efficacy correlated significantly with performance, and this effect was mediated through strategy development. Furthermore, the discovery of task‐relevant strategies affected self‐efficacy through an increase in performance. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rivals or allies: How performance‐prove goal orientation influences knowledge hiding

Previous research suggests that performance‐prove goal orientation is positively related to knowledge hiding. However, we argue that this effect depends on the focus of performance feedback (i.e., individual‐ and group‐focused feedback), which shapes the nature of the competitive expression of performance‐prove goal orientation (i.e., intragroup and intergroup oriented). We conducted three studies to test our theoretical model. The results of Study 1 with time‐lagged data from 128 part‐time MBA students showed that performance‐prove goal orientation was positively related to knowledge hiding when performance feedback focused more (vs. less) on individual performance but was negatively related to knowledge hiding when performance feedback focused more (vs. less) on group performance. Study 2 replicated these moderation findings in an experimental study of 210 undergraduate students. Study 3 again replicated the moderation effects using multisource data from 317 employees and their supervisors. It also included creativity as an outcome of knowledge hiding and illustrated the distal consequence of the moderation effects of individual‐ and group‐focused performance feedback. We then discussed the implications for the theory and practice of performance‐prove goal orientation and knowledge hiding.     

An examination of the factorial,construct, and predictive validity and utility of the regulatory focus at work scale

Although interest in regulatory focus research continues to grow, there has been very little work to date on the assessment and usefulness of regulatory focus in the workplace. The present research effort reports the results of a series of studies designed to assess the validity and utility of the Regulatory Focus at Work Scale (RWS). The results indicate that the RWS is reliable, valid, and showed incremental validity beyond general and trait‐like measures of regulatory focus in predicting relevant work outcomes of task performance, citizenship performance, safety performance, and productivity performance. The overall results of these studies support our claims that the RWS shows utility in predicting workplace outcomes and should prove useful for future research on regulatory focus in the workplace. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

You think you are big fish in a small pond? Perceived overqualification,goal orientations,and proactivity at work

Overqualification denotes situations in which job incumbents have higher qualifications than those required for the job. Drawing on the self‐regulatory perspective, we proposed that employees' perception of overqualification positively affects their proactive behavior through the mechanism of role‐breadth self‐efficacy and that this indirect effect is moderated by employees' goal orientations. We tested our hypotheses through two studies. In Study 1, we found that perceived overqualification had a positive indirect effect on employees' proactive behavior through role‐breadth self‐efficacy using a sample of 323 salespeople with a cross‐lagged panel design. In Study 2, the multi‐wave and multi‐source data from 302 teachers confirmed the indirect effect and indicated that performance goal orientation and learning goal orientation moderated the indirect relationship. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Daily shifts in regulatory focus: The influence of work events and implications for employee well‐being

Although theory suggests that regulatory focus fluctuates within person and such fluctuations impact employee well‐being, there is little empirical investigation of such propositions. These are important research questions to address because work events may elicit within‐person fluctuations in regulatory focus, which can then affect well‐being. The primary purpose of this study is to examine specific predictors of daily regulatory focus at work and the foci's impact on employee well‐being at work and home as indicated by mood and psychosomatic complaints, respectively. We present and test an overarching theoretical framework that integrates conservation of resources theory, the cognitive‐affective processing system framework, and regulatory focus theory to delineate why and when work events affect regulatory focus and how the foci affect well‐being. Consistent with our expectations, we found that positive work events positively predicted daily promotion focus, but this effect was weaker when employees had high‐quality relationships with leaders. Furthermore, daily regulatory focus was associated with employee well‐being (mood and psychosomatic complaints) such that (i) promotion focus improved well‐being; (ii) prevention focus reduced well‐being; and (iii) the effects of promotion focus on well‐being were strongest when prevention focus was low. We discuss theoretical and practical implications and offer directions for future research. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of regulatory fit in visionary leadership

It is generally argued that leader visions motivate followers by focusing on reaching desirable end‐states. However, it has also been suggested that visions may motivate followers by focusing on avoiding undesirable situations. In this paper we investigate the effects of appeals that focus on preventing an undesirable situation (i.e., prevention‐appeals) as well as appeals that focus on promoting a desirable situation (i.e., promotion‐appeals). We argue that the effectiveness of promotion‐ and prevention‐appeals is contingent on follower regulatory focus. In two experiments we show that prevention‐appeals lead to better performance than promotion‐appeals for more prevention‐focused followers, while the reverse is true for more promotion‐focused followers. We find this pattern for a dispositional measure of follower regulatory focus (Study 1) as well as for a manipulation of follower regulatory focus (Study 2). Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Task type as a moderator of positive/negative feedback effects on motivation and performance: A regulatory focus perspective

Applying Higgins' regulatory focus theory, we hypothesized that the effect of positive/negative feedback on motivation and performance is moderated by task type, which is argued to be an antecedent to situational regulatory focus (promotion or prevention). Thus, first we demonstrated that some tasks (e.g., tasks requiring creativity) are perceived as promotion tasks, whereas others (e.g., those requiring vigilance and attention to detail) are perceived as prevention tasks. Second, as expected, our tests in two studies of the moderation hypothesis showed that positive feedback increased self‐reported motivation (meta‐analysis across samples: N = 315, d = 0.43) and actual performance (N = 55, d = 0.67) among people working on promotion tasks, relative to negative feedback. Positive feedback, however, decreased motivation (N = 318, d = ?0.33) and performance (N = 55, d = ?0.37) among individuals working on prevention tasks, relative to negative feedback. These findings suggest that (a) performance of different tasks can affect regulatory focus and (b) variability in positive/negative feedback effects can be partially explained by regulatory focus and task type. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thriving at work: Toward its measurement,construct validation,and theoretical refinement

Thriving is defined as the psychological state in which individuals experience both a sense of vitality and learning. We developed and validated a measure of the construct of thriving at work. Additionally, we theoretically refined the construct by linking it to key outcomes, such as job performance, and by examining its contextual embeddedness. In Study 1, we conducted second‐order confirmatory factor analyses in two samples, demonstrating initial support for the two‐dimensional structure of thriving. We provided evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of thriving in relation to theoretically related constructs, such as positive and negative affects, learning and performance goal orientations, proactive personality, and core self‐evaluations. In Study 2, across two different samples, we further assessed construct validity by establishing a relationship between thriving and career development initiative, burnout, health, and individual job performance, explaining significant variance beyond traditional attitudinal predictors, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Finally, in Study 3, we focused on understanding the contextual embeddedness of thriving. We found differences in reports of thriving across two points in time, when substantial changes are occurring in peoples' work lives and across contexts (i.e., work and non‐work). Implications for theory and practice, as well as directions for future research, are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐leadership in the context of part‐time teleworking

Employees who work periodically in both a traditional office and home office (part‐time teleworkers) face opportunities and risks related to both working locations. As self‐leadership might play a crucial role in this context, we examined within‐person variations in self‐leadership (self‐reward, self‐punishment, self‐cueing, self‐goal setting, imagining successful performance, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions) on home days and office days. In a typical workweek, 195 part‐time teleworkers filled out daily surveys (729 days), and we examined the relationship between working location (office and home) and self‐leading behavior as well as the mediating role of autonomy. Finally, we investigated whether self‐leading behavior relates to ego depletion and work satisfaction at the end of the working day. Multilevel analyses revealed that part‐time teleworkers reported higher use of self‐reward, self‐goal setting, and visualization of successful performance on home days than on office days. The association between working location and self‐reward, self‐goal setting, visualization of successful performance, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions was mediated by autonomy. There were no indirect effects of working location on ego depletion through self‐leadership. However, we found that on home days, part‐time teleworkers were more satisfied with their job at the end of the workday through self‐goal setting.     

Job engagement,perceived organizational support,high‐performance human resource practices,and cultural value orientations: A cross‐level investigation

Drawing on social exchange theory, we developed and tested a cross‐level model of organizational‐level predictors of job engagement. Specifically, we examined the impact of high‐performance human resource (HR) practices on employee engagement and work outcomes. Based on a sample of 605 employees, their immediate supervisors, and HR managers from 130 companies, our results indicated that high‐performance HR practices were directly related to job engagement as well as indirectly related through employees' perceived organizational support. In turn, job engagement was positively related to in‐role performance and negatively related to intent to quit. Culture was found to act as a critical contextual factor, as our results also revealed that the relationship between HR practices and perceived organizational support was stronger when collectivism was high and when power distance orientation was low. Overall, the findings shed new light on the processes and conditions through which employee work‐related outcomes are enhanced owing to high‐performance HR practices. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The interactive relationship of competitive climate and trait competitiveness with workplace attitudes,stress, and performance

There has been a considerable debate about the individual and organizational benefits of competition. Adopting a person–environment fit perspective, this research examined the influence of competition as an interaction between trait competitiveness and competitive climate. Using a sample of information technology workers, competitive climate was considered as both an individual level variable and a workgroup variable. Results show that the effect of competitive climate depended on trait competitiveness and the level at which climate was assessed for four of the outcomes assessed: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job dedication, and supervisor‐rated task performance. In general, the effect of competitive climate was more negative for individuals lower in trait competitiveness. Competitive psychological climate was associated with greater stress regardless of the level of trait competitiveness but was not directly related to self‐rated task performance. Findings suggest that managers should be cautious in encouraging competitive climate. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

工作价值观、调节焦点与安全绩效的关系研究——基于煤矿企业新生代员工的实证分析

为了从价值观和调节焦点的双重视角给煤矿企业新生代员工的安全管理提供科学依据,在文献研究和问卷调查的基础上,对 244 个有效样本进行分析,揭示煤矿企业新生代员工工作价值观的具体内容,结合动机理论和调节焦点理论,构建煤矿企业新生代员工工作价值观、调节焦点和安全绩效的结构方程模型。研究结果表明:煤矿企业新生代员工的工作价值观包含发展导向、自我导向、关系认同、独立自主、利益导向和创造导向6个因子结构;煤矿企业新生代员工的工作价值观、调节焦点和安全绩效两两之间均显著相关;煤矿企业新生代员工的工作价值观不仅可以直接预测安全绩效,还可以通过调节焦点的中介作用间接影响煤矿员工的安全绩效。     

Does homesickness undermine the potential of job resources? A perspective from the work–home resources model

Rapid economic development in recent decades has resulted in a considerable increase in the number of people working far away from their home locations. Homesickness is a common reaction to the separation from home. Our research uses the work–home resources model to explain how the experience of homesickness can undermine the positive effect of job resources on job performance (i.e., task performance and safety behavior). In addition, we hypothesize that emotional stability and openness are key resources that can buffer the negative interference of homesickness with the job resources–performance relationship. We conducted two studies to test our hypotheses. Study 1 was a two‐wave longitudinal study using a migrant manufacturing worker sample. In this study, homesickness was measured at the between‐person level, and performance was measured three months later. Study 2 was a daily diary study conducted in a military trainee sample. In this study, homesickness was measured at the within‐person level to capture its fluctuations over 20 days, and daily job performance was assessed using supervisor ratings. Both studies showed evidence of the hypothesized moderating effect of homesickness and three‐way interaction effects of job resources, homesickness, and key resources (i.e., emotional stability and openness) on task performance and safety behavior.     

Knowledge management behavior and individual creativity: Goal orientations as antecedents and in‐group social status as moderating contingency

Creativity is an increasingly important domain of performance largely based on knowledge held and exchanged among employees. Despite the necessity of knowledge exchange, individual employees tend to experience mixed motivation caused by the inherent social dilemma of knowledge sharing. To pragmatically explain how individuals deal with this motivational dilemma, we propose an expanded framework of knowledge management behavior (KMB) that includes knowledge sharing, hiding, and manipulation. Individual choices among these KMBs may be driven by dispositional goal orientations. We also propose that the effects of KMB on creativity of employees vary depending on their social status in a work group. Our analyses based on 214 employees from 37 teams reveal that (i) learning goal orientation increases knowledge sharing and decreases knowledge manipulation; (ii) avoiding goal orientation increases knowledge sharing and manipulation; and (iii) proving goal orientation increases knowledge hiding and manipulation. Knowledge hiding is negatively related to employee creativity, particularly for employees with high social status. Knowledge manipulation is positively related to creativity, particularly for those with high social status. This study develops and validates a theoretical framework explaining the formative process and distinct outcomes of the multifaceted and strategic approaches to KMB at the individual level. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Design conditions for learning in community service contexts

In this study, we investigated team‐based community service projects as action learning initiatives designed to facilitate two learning outcomes: community learning (knowledge of social, cultural, or economic issues) and personal learning (self‐awareness of managerial attitudes and abilities). We developed hypotheses to predict critical input conditions for action learning that promote community and personal learning. We tested these hypotheses with data collected from 381 MBA students and their team leaders who participated in a variety of community service projects. Results demonstrated that design conditions (task characteristics, social interactions, and affective responses) influenced community and personal learning differently. We supplemented survey results with interview and observational data from a subset of participants and conclude with a discussion of the theoretical implications for action learning and practical recommendations for designing community service programs. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distinct effects of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards on radical and incremental creativity: The moderating role of goal orientations

Previous studies have investigated the role of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards in enhancing employee creativity. However, the possibility that these motivational factors affect the creativity of different types remains largely unexplored, particularly in the organizational settings. Moreover, the potential that personality traits may moderate the function of these motivational factors toward creativity is another underresearched area. By drawing on the person–situation interaction perspective, we propose that both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards predict creativity but of different types. Thus, we diverge from the view that creativity is a uniform criterion domain by adopting the distinction between radical and incremental creativity. Our empirical analysis of 220 independent employee–supervisor dyads confirmed that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards predict radical and incremental creativity, respectively. Moreover, the effects of intrinsic motivation on radical and incremental creativity are more positive for employees with higher learning goal orientation. By contrast, the effect of extrinsic rewards on incremental creativity is more positive for employees with higher performance goal orientation. This study offers elaborate and nuanced perspectives and insights into the role of different motivational processes in the development of different types of creativity.     

The interactive effects of conscientiousness,openness to experience,and political skill on job performance in complex jobs: The importance of context

Caveats concerning the ability of personality to predict job performance have been raised because of seemingly modest criterion‐related validity. The goal of the present research was to test whether narrowing the context via the type of job (i.e., jobs with complex task demands) and adding a social skill‐related moderator (i.e., political skill) would improve performance prediction. Further, along with political skill, the broad factor of personality demonstrated in prior research to have the strongest criterion validity (i.e., conscientiousness) was joined with a narrow construct closely related to openness to experience (i.e., learning approach) in a three‐way interactive prediction of supervisor‐rated task performance. With the employee–supervisor dyads among professionals, but not with the control group of non‐professional employees, task performance was predicted by the three‐way interaction, such that those high on all three received the highest performance ratings. Implications, strengths and limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mentoring with(in) care: A co‐constructed auto‐ethnography of mutual learning

Research into workplace mentoring is principally focussed on predictors and psychosocial and instrumental outcomes, while there is scarcely any in‐depth research into relational characteristics, outcomes and processes. This article aims to illustrate these relational aspects. It reports a co‐constructed auto‐ethnography of a dyadic mentoring relationship as experienced by mentor and protégé. The co‐constructed narrative illustrates that attentiveness towards each other and a caring attitude, alongside learning‐focussed values, promote a high‐quality mentoring relationship. This relationship is characterised, among other things, by person centredness, care, trust and mutual influence, thereby offering a situation in which mutual learning and growth can occur. Learning develops through and in relation and is enhanced when both planned and unplanned learning takes place. In addition, the narrative makes clear that learning and growth of both those involved are intertwined and interdependent and that mutual learning and growth enrich and strengthen the relationship. It is concluded that the narrative illustrates a number of complex relational processes that are difficult to elucidate in quantitative studies and theoretical constructs. It offers deeper insight into the initiation and improvement of high‐quality mentoring relationships and emphasises the importance of further research into relational processes in mentoring relationships. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Navigating uneven terrain: The roles of political skill and LMX differentiation in prediction of work relationship quality and work outcomes

Drawing from social/political influence, leader–member exchange (LMX), and social comparison theories, the present two‐study investigation examines three levels of LMX differentiation (i.e., individual‐level, meso‐level, and group‐level LMX differentiation) and further tests a model of the joint effects of political skill and LMX differentiation on LMX, relative LMX, and employee work outcomes. In Study 1, we used data from 231 employees and found support for the interactive effect of political skill and individual perceptions of LMX differentiation on LMX quality. We also found partial support for the moderating role of individual‐level LMX differentiation on the indirect effects of political skill on self‐rated task performance and job satisfaction via LMX. In Study 2, we used data from 185 supervisor–subordinate dyads and examined both meso‐level and group‐level LMX differentiation via a multilevel moderated mediation model. Results supported the moderating role of group‐level LMX differentiation and group mean LMX on the indirect effects of political skill on supervisor‐rated task performance and contextual performance/citizenship behavior as well as job satisfaction via relative LMX. Overall, the results suggest that politically skilled employees reap the benefits of LMX differentiation, as they enjoy higher absolute LMX and relative (i.e., to their peers) LMX quality. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Explaining task performance and creativity from perceived organizational support theory: Which mechanisms are more important?

Perceived organizational support (POS) theory specifies three mechanisms—felt obligation, group identification, and outcome expectancy—to explain the effects of organizational support on employee work outcomes. These mechanisms have usually been examined in isolation so that it is not possible to assess their relative explanatory power. The present study aims to remedy this problem by examining the three mechanisms simultaneously using structural equation modeling. On the basis of a sample of 206 bank employees in China, we focus on two types of employee performance—task performance and creativity—as dependent variables. Drawing on self‐determination theory and characteristics of the research context, we propose that task performance is more strongly predicted by felt obligation than by the other two mechanisms, whereas identification and expectancy more strongly predict creativity than felt obligation. We conclude by discussing our contribution to POS and creativity research, and highlight some important implications of our findings. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.