中国北方冬小麦的水分亏缺与气候生产潜力--近40年来的动态变化研究

基于辨识自然条件下的水分对北方半湿润半干旱地区冬小麦气候生产潜力的影响,采用“逐步订正法”分别计算了光合、光温和气候生产潜力,并进行了评估。从水分平衡角度,采用新颖的数理模式构建了估算气候生产潜力的水分订正函数,其中冬小麦需水量采用FAO最新推荐的Penman-Monteith公式,供水量采用新近研制的降水量和土壤有效底墒模式。计算了本区78个站点近40年(1961～2000年)逐年的气候生产潜力,分别以相对变率、变异系数以及由水分亏缺引起的减产率和水分亏缺率等为指标,分析了近40年中国北方冬小麦水分与气候生产潜力的动态变化。结果表明,由于底墒水约占冬小麦全生育期需水量的20％～30％,对气候生产潜力的贡献较大,相应地,计算得到的冬小麦气候生产潜力比以往一些结果高出约20％～30％,这对评估气候生产潜力有重要意义。在生产潜力动态变化方面,由于降水变率大,使得气候生产潜力的时空变化大于光合和光温生产潜力的时空变化,而且在河北(包括津京地区)和山东两省,水分具有由南向北、由东向西减少的趋势,陕西、山西和河南三省水分有由南向北减少的趋势,使得各项指标的变化均有与此基本相应的变化趋势。     

近40a黄淮海地区夏玉米生长季干旱时空特征分析

干旱是制约黄淮海地区夏玉米产量稳定的主要农业气象灾害,明确粮食主产区农业干旱发生的演变规律,对于采取有效的防灾减灾对策意义重大。基于作物水分亏缺指数和夏玉米干旱等级指标,分析了黄淮海地区近40a夏玉米生长季干旱的时空变化规律。结果表明:夏玉米各生育阶段间比较,播种-出苗期水分亏缺指数和干旱发生概率最大。除播种-出苗期外,随着干旱等级的升高,干旱发生概率逐渐降低,但播种-出苗期则以特旱等级发生概率最大;各阶段水分亏缺指数无明显的时间变化趋势,但年际间波动较大,特别是夏玉米生长中后期,1997年是近40a干旱发生最为严重的年份,不仅干旱持续时间长,且发生范围也最大;水分亏缺指数空间分布范围在年代际间存在"缩小-增大-缩小"的变化规律,从各年代干旱等级及其分布范围看,1991-2000年干旱最严重,2001-2010年有所减轻。夏玉米各阶段水分亏缺指数及各等级干旱发生概率基本呈现为由东南向西北逐渐增大的变化趋势,河北大部、河南西部和北部以及山东的中西部地区是各阶段干旱概率的高值区。由于年际间的波动在增大,黄淮海地区夏玉米生长中后期极端干旱灾害发生的可能性较大,北部及西部地区更是干旱灾害的高发区,生产中仍需加强对干旱灾害的预测预报及防御工作。     

河南小麦生产农业气象灾害风险分析及区划

根据农业气象灾害风险分析理论，以河南省小麦生产为例，在辨识对小麦产量影响较大的农业气象灾害风险要素和风险源的基础上，通过构造灾度函数，运用EOF和概率等分析方法，分析了河南省小麦生产中的3种主要农业气象灾害——麦播旱涝、晚霜冻、干热风与青枯雨的发生规律及其对小麦产量的定量影响程度与风险概率。在此基础上，运用多因子综合风险指数模型，对河南省小麦生产农业气象灾害风险进行了综合区划，为农业气象灾害风险探讨了一条新的定量分析及区划技术体系。分析发现，干热风与青枯雨是影响河南省大部分地区小麦高产稳产的主要灾害，其次是晚霜冻危害，第三是麦播时旱涝灾害，但总体上河南省小麦生产的农业气象灾害风险并不算太高，只要采取一定的防御措施，不会在根本上影响小麦的高产稳产。     

区域农业水分供应脆弱性分析及定量损失评估

采用积分湿度指数方法,建立了区域农业水分供应脆弱性分析模型,并以山东省为案例进行了应用研究,结果表明:无论春、夏、秋季还是年平均的积分湿度指数值,均呈从东南到西北递减的趋势,说明自然降水对农业需水的满足程度沿该方向递减。对山东省而言,农业用水的满足程度在季节上也存在较大的差异,夏季降水在农业满足程度方面最高、秋季次之、春季最差。由于气候因子的年变异较大,积分湿度指数的年变异亦大;根据作物产量的形成为一动态过程,作物整个生育期内的每一个生长阶段都对其最终产量有一定的贡献,利用积分回归模式对作物全生育期中每一旬降水因子与产量的定量关系进行模拟分析,得到了主要农作物全生育期内每旬降水对最终产量的贡献系数。根据每旬降水对产量的贡献系数和作物受旱指标,建立了作物旱灾损失评估模型。     

华北地区冬小麦干旱评估指标研究

干旱作为一种气象灾害,系以降水缺少并造成减产为特征。用三次多项式对历史产量序列进行处理,求出趋势产量和气象产量,然后对气象产量和降水距平的关系进行了相关分析。结果发现,气象产量与冬小麦全生育期和拔节期的降水距平有着十分密切的关系,尤其是前者。通过统计分析,建立了它们之间的回归方程,并与农业干旱划分标准相结合,确定了两套与轻旱、中旱、重旱和极端干旱相对应的干旱指标,即冬小麦全生育期降水负距平分别为小于15％,15％～35％,35％～55％和大于55％时,出现轻旱、中旱、重旱和极端干旱,产量分别减少小于10％,10％～20％,20％～30％和大于30％;拔节期降水负距平为小于30％,30％～65％和65％～100％时,分别出现轻旱、中旱和重旱,分别减产小于10％．10％～20％和20％～30％。可以看出,拔节期降水缺少对产量的影响,远远不如全生育期的降水影响大,因此评估中应以前者为主,后者为辅,相互配合使用。     

华北北部冬小麦干旱和产量灾损的风险评估

利用河北及京津地区53年(1949～2001年)的冬小麦实际产量资料,采用直线滑动平均法分离出趋势产量和气象产量,并将气象产量作了相对化处理;以本区主要由干旱所造成的相对气象产量负值(减产率)序列作为研究对象,根据风险理论采用风险评估技术和方法,计算了该区在干旱气候条件下冬小麦不同减产率范围出现的概率,并选取历年减产率的变异系数、历年平均减产率和减产率风险概率作为评价指标,分析了干旱气候条件下河北及京津地区历年冬小麦产量灾损的风险水平。研究结果可为冬小麦产量风险预测及抗灾减损提供科学依据。     

中国农业气象灾害对作物产量的影响

根据中国主要作物产量、受灾面积和气象条件等相关资料，详细分析了全国主要农业气象灾害的分布地区、季节特点及变化特征。结果表明：干旱、洪涝和冷冻害是影响作物产量的主要气象灾害，而各种灾害均有明显增加的趋势。旱灾是最严重的灾害，受灾面积是洪涝面积的2．3倍。分析了全国主要农业气象灾害对作物产量的严重影响，玉米和大豆产区主要是旱灾，早稻和晚稻产区主要是冷害和洪灾，一季稻和棉花产区主要是洪涝和旱灾，冬小麦和油菜产区的严重减产主要受冻害影响。     

分离趋势产量和气候产量的方法探讨

在长时间序列的作物产量与气候因子关系的统计研究中,一般把作物的产量分解为趋势产量、气候产量和随机误差3部分。趋势产量是反映历史时期生产力发展水平的长周期产量分量,也被称为技术产量,气候产量是受气候要素为主的短周期变化因子(农业气象灾害为主)影响的波动产量分量。因为不同趋势产量模拟方法分离的气候产量的结果可能不同,甚至截然相反,所以分离趋势产量以得到准确的气候产量就显得尤其重要,这关系到影响作物产量的气候因子(主要是农业气象灾害)分析的准确性。试图以气候变化对棉花产量影响为例,说明如何选择合适的趋势产量求算方法,进而分离得到气候产量。提出了方法选择的3个依据条件:趋势产量模拟曲线应该符合社会技术各发展阶段的实际;全国或整个研究区的趋势产量变化特征因子应该基本一致(即社会和技术水平发展过程差异不大),气候条件相似区域其气候产量应该具有很强的相关性;分析得到的影响研究对象(作物)生长的关键气候因子或者农业气象灾害因子,应该符合所研究对象的生育特性及其对气候因子或农业气象灾害因子的响应规律。     

农作物气象灾害风险识别与评估研究

以安徽省来安县水稻和萧县玉米为例,通过构建气象灾害指数和异常优化匹配技术量化气象灾害与产量损失之间关系,进而实现作物气象灾害风险的识别与评估。考虑到作物产量存在年趋势,利用直线滑动平均法(LMA)法进行产量年趋势剔除,获得产量年际波动率数据;根据研究区及作物生长期特征,用三种气象要素(降水、温度和光照)构建研究区长江的五种气象灾害(干旱、洪涝、高温、冻害、寡照)指数,并利用逐日气象要素值计算气象灾害指数的年极值与年累计值,获得气象灾害指数时序数据;基于气象灾害属于异常天气事件,导致作物产量异常的原理,采用气象灾害指数异常与产量损失异常匹配的方法来识别气象灾害与产量之间的关系。同时,通过调整异常阈值标准来逐步寻找最优的气象灾害指数与产量损失关系模型。借助关系模型,可对来安县水稻和萧县玉米的各种气象灾害风险进行模拟,获得各种气象灾害风险曲线和期望减产率,并据此对各气象灾害风险大小进行排序。农作物气象灾害风险识别与评估技术具有重要的实际应用价值,为农业气象灾害风险的监测及农业天气指数保险产品的开发提供重要的技术支撑。     

基于种植结构调整的农业生产适应性分析——以内蒙古乌兰察布市为例

提高农业旱灾适应性,有利于降低农业旱灾风险,使农业生产在与旱灾风险共存中求得可持续发展,而种植结构调整是主要的农业生产适应措施之一。以内蒙古乌兰察布市为案例区,基于统计年鉴数据,分析了该市近50 a以来的种植结构调整情况;并结合区域降水年内及年际变化特征,对基于政府政策驱动下的种植结构调整进行了分析。基于粮食产量波动与降水波动的关系,评价了农业生产的气候适应度。结果显示,种植结构调整作为旱灾适应性的有效调整措施,保证了该区农作物单产在降水波动增大的条件下仍呈现逐年增长的趋势,1995年以来区域农业旱灾适应性明显增强,更适于气候暖干化条件。     

Cholera in Sudan: An account of an epidemic in a refugee camp in eastern Sudan, May-June 1985

In 1985 cholera has been a serious problem in the horn of Africa, particularly affecting the many famine victims and refugees in that region. In this paper the history of cholera in Africa is briefly summarized, as is the background to the current refugee situation in eastern Sudan. A cholera epidemic involving 1,175 cases in two adjacent refugee camps in eastern Sudan is described. In this epidemic there were thirteen inpatient deaths and thirty-eight known home deaths from cholera. The management of the epidemic is described in detail. Overall an average of 8 1. of intravenous fluid was used per case, a higher figure than was anticipated, probably because of the unexpected degree of vomiting and the shortage of trained nursing staff.
The relationship between cholera and malnutrition is explored and hypochlorhydria is suggested as the main reason for the increased susceptibility to cholera among malnourished populations. It was observed that severely malnourished adults and children appeared to nave less severe diarrhoea with their cholera, presumably because of reduced mucosal surface area and poor enterocyte function. Finally possible means of aborting cholera epidemics are discussed.     

A retrospective statistical review of deaths owing to migration through the southeasternmost land borders of the European Union,Greece 2000–14

The land borders of Evros, Greece, have been a common entry point for undocumented migrants on their way to Europe through Turkey. Adverse conditions, however, have resulted in many human casualties over the years. On the Greek side, 334 cadavers were retrieved between 2000 and 2014. This study provides a detailed forensic account of the humanitarian disaster in Evros to create an official scientific record of the situation. It showcases the gravity of the global issue of migration relating to health and mortality, and encourages communication and continual improvement of the approach and patterns of practices surrounding the subject. A retrospective statistical research review was conducted of border‐related fatalities between 2000 and 2014, assessing the age and gender of victims, the cause of death, the location of bodies, identification rates, and country of origin. Age ranged generally from 24 to 29 years, but infants and children were among the deceased.     

Complexity,continuity and change: livelihood resilience in the Darfur region of Sudan

Darfur farming and pastoralist livelihoods are both adaptations to the environmental variability that characterises the region. This article describes this adaptation and the longer‐term transformation of these specialised livelihoods from the perspective of local communities. Over several decades farmers and herders have experienced a continuous stream of climate, conflict and other shocks, which, combined with wider processes of change, have transformed livelihoods and undermined livelihood institutions. Their well‐rehearsed specialist strategies are now combined with new strategies to cope. These responses help people get by in the short term but risk antagonising not only their specialist strategies but also those of others. A combination of factors has undermined the former integration between farming and pastoralism and their livelihood institutions. Efforts to build resilience in similar contexts must take a long‐term view of livelihood adaptation as a specialisation, and consider the implications of new strategies for the continuity and integration of livelihood specialisations.     

The cultural politics of mining and natural disaster in Indonesia: by fire and sword

Natural disasters are inevitably the outcome of cultural agonisms. The cultural politics of natural disasters are shaped by competing claims and conceptions of ‘nature’. Recent disasters in Indonesia are directly linked to these contending conceptions and the ways in which different social groups imagine risk and reward. The Sidoarjo volcanic mudflow of 2006 represents a volatile and violent exemplar of contending cultural and economic claims. Like other disasters in Indonesia and elsewhere in the developing world, this ‘natural’ disaster is characterised by differing conceptions of ‘nature’ as cultural tradition, divine force, and natural resource. A new extractive project in East Java is exhibiting similar economic and cultural agonisms, particularly around the notion of development, environment, self‐determination, and tradition. This paper examines the ‘disputes over meaning’ associated with natural disasters in contemporary societies, and the ways in which they are related to human culture, social organisation, and hierarchical systems of violence.     

Risk communication in emergency response to a simulated extreme flood

Risk communication in flood incident management can be improved through developing hydrometeorological and engineering models used as tools for communicating risk between scientists and emergency management professionals. A range of such models and tools was evaluated by participating flood emergency managers during a 4-day, real-time simulation of an extreme event in the Thamesmead area in the Thames estuary close to London, England. Emergency managers have different communication needs and value new tools differently, but the indications are that a range of new tools could be beneficial in flood incident management. Provided they are communicated large model uncertainties are not necessarily unwelcome among flood emergency managers. Even so they are cautious about sharing the ownership of weather and flood modelling uncertainties.     

Fiji, land of tropical cyclones and hurricanes: A case study of agricultural rehabilitation

Tropical cyclones and hurricanes have a severe impact on the social and economic activities of affected communities. For small island nations in the Pacific region, the effects can be devastating because of their smallness. FQi and several other countries in the region are vulnerable to such disasters as they are situated in the zone where cyclones occur frequently.
During the last decade, the frequency of natural disasters and their adverse impact on die economic and social development of small nations like Fiji, has aroused awareness mat relief efforts must go beyond immediate "mopping up" operations to those which contribute to attaining longer term benefits through reconstruction and rehabilitation.
The paper outlines the 1985 agricultural rehabilitation program and discusses related issues and problems.     

The ethical contours of research in crisis settings: five practical considerations for academic institutional review boards and researchers

The number of research studies in the humanitarian field is rising. It is imperative, therefore, that institutional review boards (IRBs) consider carefully the additional risks present in crisis contexts to ensure that the highest ethical standards are upheld. Ethical guidelines should represent better the specific issues inherent to research among populations grappling with armed conflict, disasters triggered by natural hazards, or health‐related emergencies. This paper seeks to describe five issues particular to humanitarian settings that IRBs should deliberate and on which they should provide recommendations to overcome associated challenges: staged reviews of protocols in acute emergencies; flexible reviews of modification requests; addressing violence and the traumatic experiences of participants; difficulties in attaining meaningful informed consent among populations dependent on aid; and ensuring reviews are knowledgeable of populations' needs. Considering these matters when reviewing protocols will yield more ethically sound research in humanitarian settings and hold researchers accountable to appropriate ethical standards.     

The need to look beyond the production and provision of relief seed: experiences from southern Sudan

Free distribution of seeds in selected areas of southern Sudan has been widespread as a way of increasing food security. Field research in areas targeted for seed relief found that farmer seed systems continue to meet the crop and varietal needs of farmers even following the 1998 famine. Donor investments in seed multiplication of improved sorghum have not been sustained due to a lack of effective demand for the improved seed beyond that created by the relief agencies. The article argues that rather than imposing outside solutions, whether through seed provisioning or seed production enterprises, greater attention needs to be given to building on the strengths of existing farmer systems and designing interventions to alleviate the weaknesses. The case is made to support dynamically the process of farmer experimentation through the informed introduction of new crops and varieties that can potentially reinforce the strength and diversity of local cropping systems.     

Social capital and food security in post-conflict rural Lira District,northern Uganda

While a strong relationship has been established between social capital and food security in the research literature, it is uncertain whether this holds in post-conflict situations. This study examines associations between social capital and food security in post-conflict Lira District, northern Uganda. Since factors affecting food security are complex, we explored the roles of households' characteristics in food security outcomes. Data were collected from March to July 2011 through face-to-face interviews with 221 heads of household in rural Lira. Using multinomial logistic regression, a strong positive association was identified between social capital and household food security. The study also found significant associations of food security with sex, education of household head, amount of cultivated land, and farm and home possessions. The results of this analysis can aid the design of food security programmes that empower poor people while targeting the most vulnerable groups, thereby promoting sustainable development in post-conflict communities.