欧盟重金属污染防治制度研究

欧盟是一个由各成员国合作实施共同但又有差别化环境政策的区域,其重金属污染防治工作特色明显。总结分析了欧盟重金属污染防治的管理制度和相关经验,重点研究欧盟在水环境、大气环境、土壤环境以及固体废弃物等领域的重金属污染防治法律法规、标准体系,总结其经验,以期为中国重金属污染防治工作提供参考和借鉴。     

欧盟工业废水污染物排放限值的制定

目前欧盟废水污染物排放限值的制定,主要依据欧盟委员会公布的污染综合防治指令和水政策行动框架指令的原则来进行。限值的制定方法主要有两种：一是以技术先进、经济合理为基础的最佳可行技术法;二是通过水环境质量标准、水体稀释能力以及污水处理系统削减能力来计算的反演法。中国可借鉴欧盟的先进方法进行环境标准体系的建设和完善。     

欧盟扩大后将影响其环境政策

由于欧盟(EU)的10个新成员国存在较严重的环境问题，也缺乏资金解决这些环境问题，为此，专家对欧盟扩大后今后是否推行其激进的环境政策提出质疑。新成员国如捷克和波兰，其能源主要依靠煤，而波罗的海国家爱沙尼亚、拉脱维亚和立陶宛则缺少适当的废物处理设施，废物非法堆积深受其害。欧盟要求新成员国必须执行其环境指令，每年向欧洲委员会(EC)报告其环境保护方面的进步。     

EEA评述欧洲水环境质量现状

欧洲环保署(EEA)最近发布“欧洲水质现状”通报称,欧盟近年水质改善有进展,主要是由于工业和居民区污染减少,以及1 990年以来海洋油泄漏事故数量和泄漏量减少。此外,除南欧西部地区外,水消费总量还在减少。但是,欧盟范围内目前稳定的水质改善由于未能减少,农业污染将受到很大威胁。因为农田中化肥、硝酸盐污染仍然居高不下;今春同意接纳的塞浦路斯、捷克、爱沙尼亚、匈牙利等1 0个新成员国会对欧盟水环境增加压力,特别这些国家农业径流,以及旅游者、农民和能源部门的过量用水EEA评述欧洲水环境质量现状@未名     

加强环境标准建设 提升环境管理内涵

环境标准在国家环保工作中起着举足轻重的作用，科学地应用环境标准，进一步发挥环境标准在环境保护中的技术法规作用，将会有效地保持和改善环境质量，控制环境污染。因此，就目前国家环境标准建设的现状及存在的问题与原因分析及其在环境管理工作中的作用作了探讨。     

欧盟生态标志计划

概述了欧盟生态标志计划，介绍了欧盟生态标志计划的实施程序，包括标志产品种类划分和产品标准确定程序、标志申请和审批程序、正在研究制订的标志产品种类等，介绍了英国生态标志计划，对欧盟生态标志计划中的生命周期评价进行了评述，并对欧盟生态标志计划中的问题进行了讨论。     

欧盟已实施污染物排放登记

欧洲联盟 (EU )已于 2 0 0 4年 2月下旬实施污染物排放登记 (EPER) ,类同于美国于 1 988年实施的有毒物质排放清单(TRI) ,不同的是美国每年一次 ,包括 6 5 0种化学物质 ,欧盟则每 3年一次 ,仅包括 5 0种污染物 ,其中有温室气体二氧化碳和甲烷 ,但不包括向土地排放的化学物质 ,欧盟 EPER现收集到 2 0 0 1年的工业排放信息 ,包括其 1 5个成员国和挪威共 1 0 0 0 0家大中型工业设施排放的污染物 ,挪威虽非 EU成员国 ,但自愿参与此举。欧盟已实施污染物排放登记…     

中国流域水污染防治规划问题与对策研究

科学制定和实施有效的水污染防治规划,是改善中国流域水环境质量的主要措施之一.对中国"九五"和"十五"期间的流域水污染防治规划实施状况进行了评估,分析了规划制订与实施过程中存在的相关问题,提出了改进中国流域水污染防治规划制定和实施的相关对策.分析结果表明,中国重点流域水污染防治规划实施状况较差,突出表现为控制目标没有达到、投资额不能到位和项目实施率较低等现象.通过对制约规划实施效果的主要因素的深入分析,发现规划目标可达性较差、数据可靠性较低、规划技术方法以及监管体制、环境标准和法律法规等不完善问题是制约规划成功实施的关键性要素.针对上述问题,分别提出了规划体系、管理体制、投资方式、监督管理、标准体系建设以及法律法规完善等方面的改善建议与对策.     

加拿大环境标准制定程序及对中国的启示

环境标准在环境管理、环境执法等方面有着重要的作用.加拿大实行由议会和省众议院制定环境标准框架,政府即内阁制定细节性的管理规定、行政长官颁发排放许可或行政命令和法院作出有关环境标准的判例的环境标准制定模式.通过设定环境目标、确定环境基准,建立环境质量标准和制定排放标准4个步骤制定环境标准.在环境标准制定过程中,加拿大充分...     

丹麦污染控制的法律与实践

丹麦是欧盟中污染控制水平较高的成员国。介绍了丹麦在废物，交通，水污染控制和能源利用方面的实践以及污染控制的法律渊源，管理机构和政策方法；对丹麦的国际环境合作也有所论及。     

Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009 and upcoming challenges for exposure assessment of plant protection products--Harmonisation or national modelling approaches?

In the new European Pesticide Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009, the harmonisation of approaches for estimation of the environmental exposure of pesticides is considered a major goal. Several member states currently require their own models for the calculation of predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) in surface water. The variety of methods makes risk evaluations rather time-consuming for both notifiers and evaluating authorities. In the present study we compare surface water concentrations of 19 compounds using EU and country-specific models and risk assessment approaches to evaluate to which extent the resulting estimated exposure concentrations differ. Our results show that EU and country specific approaches and the resulting surface water concentrations differ considerably regarding basic model assumptions and assessment methods. The results indicate that the aimed harmonisation of risk assessment approaches within the EU will be difficult based on current models. New scenarios may help to achieve a harmonisation taking country-specific features into account.     

China’s wastewater discharge standards in urbanization

Background and purpose

China's environmental problems and pollution control have global implications. China??s water pollution has been increasing with its urbanization and industrialization. Although great efforts have been taken to keep its wastewater discharge standards in pace with the water pollution development and technological advances, many challenges remain. A summary of the past achievements and lessons as well as the current problems in water pollution may provide a basis for future improvements in China and a reference for other countries.

Methods

Statistical data are summarized to reveal the evolution of China??s population, wastewater discharge and corresponding discharge standards over the past four decades. In particular, the specific control indexes and number of controlled items are discussed in details. The present water pollution situation is clearly illustrated by the water pollution map and the water quality distribution diagram. A comparison between China??s present wastewater discharge standards and those in the USA and the EU are also presented to find the possibilities for future improvement.

Results

The historical origins, major challenges and future perspectives of China??s wastewater discharge standards are overviewed. The barriers and ongoing efforts for standards formulation and implementation are highlighted. Some suggestions for future endeavors are given.

Conclusions

China??s wastewater discharge standard system has seen significant improvement over the past decades, but it still has many defects and limitations. Nonetheless, unprecedented great efforts are underway to address all these challenges. More stringent standards and subsequently a cleaner water environment in China can be expected in the near future.     

Reducing fluxes of faecal indicator compliance parameters to bathing waters from diffuse agricultural sources: the Brighouse Bay study, Scotland

The European Water Framework Directive requires the integrated management of point and diffuse pollution to achieve 'good' water quality in 'protected areas'. These include bathing waters, which are regulated using faecal indicator organisms as compliance parameters. Thus, for the first time, European regulators are faced with the control of faecal indicator fluxes from agricultural sources where these impact on bathing water compliance locations. Concurrently, reforms to the European Union (EU) Common Agricultural Policy offer scope for supporting on-farm measures producing environmental benefits through the new 'single farm payments' and the concept of 'cross-compliance'. This paper reports the first UK study involving remedial measures, principally stream bank fencing, designed to reduce faecal indicator fluxes at the catchment scale. Considerable reduction in faecal indicator flux was observed, but this was insufficient to ensure bathing water compliance with either Directive 76/160/EEC standards or new health-evidence-based criteria proposed by WHO and the European Commission.     

Occurrence and behaviour of selected hydrophobic alkylphenolic compounds in the Danube River

Six hydrophobic alkylphenolic compounds were investigated for the first time simultaneously in four different matrices in the Danube River. Maximum sediment concentrations were 2.83, 2.10, 0.28, and 0.035 mg kg⁻¹ for nonylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylate, nonylphenol diethoxylate and octylphenol. Maximum levels in suspended particulate matter (SPM) were 0.18, 0.12, 0.10, and 0.003 mg kg⁻¹. No correlation between concentrations in SPM and sediments was found. Octylphenol monoethoxylate and octylphenol diethoxylate were recorded only in sediment at one location. In mussels and water only nonylphenol and octylphenol were found. Nonylphenol concentrations in mussels (up to 0.34 mg kg⁻¹) correlate with concentrations found in SPM and indicate a slight bioaccumulation. Concentrations in water were close to the limit of quantification. We assume in situ formation of nonylphenol monoethoxylate and nonylphenol in sediments at some locations. In some cases nonylphenol in sediments exceeded the provisional EU environmental quality standards.     

Occurrence and distribution of organic trace substances in waters from the Three Gorges Reservoir, China

This study deals with the evaluation of water quality of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) in order to assess its suitability as a raw water source for drinking water production. Therefore, water samples from (1) surface water, (2) tap water, and (3) wastewater treatment plant effluents were taken randomly by 2011–2012 in the area of the TGR and were analyzed for seven different organic contaminant groups (207 substances in total), applying nine different analytical methods. In the three sampled water sources, typical contaminant patterns were found, i.e., pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in surface water with concentrations of 0.020–3.5 μg/L and 0.004–0.12 μg/L, disinfection by-products in tap water with concentrations of 0.050–79 μg/L, and pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plant effluents with concentrations of 0.020–0.76 μg/L, respectively. The most frequently detected organic compounds in surface water (45 positives out of 57 samples) were the pyridine pesticides clopyralid and picloram. The concentrations might indicate that they are used on a regular basis and in conjunction in the area of the TGR. Three- and four-ring PAH were ubiquitously distributed, while the poorly soluble five- and six-ring members, perfluorinated compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers, were below the detection limit. In general, the detected concentrations in TGR are in the same range or even lower compared to surface waters in western industrialized countries, although contaminant loads can still be high due to a high discharge. With the exception of the two pesticides, clopyralid and picloram, concentrations of the investigated organic pollutants in TGR meet the limits of the Chinese Standards for Drinking Water Quality GB 5749 (Ministry of Health of China and Standardization Administration of China 2006) and the European Union (EU) Council Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption (The Council of the European Union 1998), or rather, the EU Directive on environmental quality standards in the field of water policy (The European Parliament and The Council of the European Union 2008). Therefore, the suggested use of surface water from TGR for drinking water purposes is a valid option. Current treatment methods, however, do not seem to be efficient since organic pollutants were detected in significant concentrations in purified tap water.     

百菌清农药残留的SPE-GC检测

对环境水样中百菌清农药残留进行了SPE-GC分析方法研究。环境水样通过Florisil柱富集、净化,3 mL乙酸乙酯洗脱,GC-ECD进行分析检测。实验表明,百菌清农药残留在0.01~10 mg/L范围内线性关系良好,相关系数为0.9993。外标法定量,检出限为0.0035 mg/L,对实际水样进行加标回收,回收率范围在93.47%~100.14%之间,6次重复测定相对标准偏差在3.97%~4.96%之间,并将方法应用于周边环境地表水的检测。该方法具有简便,快速,准确,灵敏度高等特点,能满足环境水样中农药残留分析要求。     

The groundwater contribution to surface water contamination in a region with intensive agricultural land use (Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands)

Traditionally, monitoring of soil, groundwater and surface water quality is coordinated by different authorities in the Netherlands. Nowadays, the European Water Framework Directive (EU, 2,000) stimulates an integrated approach of the complete soil-groundwater-surface water system. Based on water quality data from several test catchments, we propose a conceptual model stating that stream water quality at different discharges is the result of different mixing ratios of groundwater from different depths. This concept is used for a regional study of the groundwater contribution to surface water contamination in the Dutch province of Noord-Brabant, using the large amount of available data from the regional monitoring networks. The results show that groundwater is a dominant source of surface water contamination. The poor chemical condition of upper and shallow groundwater leads to exceedance of the quality standards in receiving surface waters, especially during quick flow periods.     

1,2,4-trichlorobenzene marine risk assessment with special emphasis on the Osparcom region North Sea

A risk assessment on 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene was carried out specifically for the marine environment according to the methodology laid down in the EU Risk Assessment Regulation 1488/94 and the Guidance Documents of the EU Existing Substances Regulation 793/93. The study consists of the collection and evaluation of data on effects and environmental concentrations from analytical monitoring programs in large rivers and estuaries in the North Sea area. The risk is indicated by comparing the predicted environmental concentration (PEC) with the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC) for the marine aquatic environment. A PNECwater) value of 0.3 microg/l and a PNECsed value of 38 microg/kgdw were derived from the results of toxicological studies in organisms representing three trophic levels, i.e. aquatic plants, invertebrates and fish. Based on monitoring data two situations are distinguished: a typical case and a worst case with a PECwater of <0.047 and 0.1 microg/l, respectively, and a PECsed of 40 and 90 microg/kgdw, respectively. The calculated PEC/PNEC ratios were 0.16 and 0.3 for water and 1 and 2.4 for sediment, respectively. It was concluded that no risks are expected for aquatic organisms. Based on the combination of worst-case assumptions risks to benthic organisms could not be fully excluded, but since all open uses of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene will be ended following the EU risk assessment outcome of 2001 any potential risk is expected to be reduced accordingly. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene is not considered toxic according to the EU criteria and the available data on persistence of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene indicate a half-life in water of a few days and a significant biodegradation potential. The bioaccumulation potential is low to moderate with most BCF ratios for fish ranging from 600 to 1400 and one highest of 2020. Based on an extensive evaluation of persistence, biodegradation and bioaccumulation data it is concluded that 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene is not a PBT, since it does not fulfill any of the EU criteria. Biomagnification in the food chain is not expected due to the relatively high elimination rate constants.     

The Swedish monitoring of surface waters: 50 years of adaptive monitoring

For more than 50 years, scientific insights from surface water monitoring have supported Swedish evidence-based environmental management. Efforts to understand and control eutrophication in the 1960s led to construction of wastewater treatment plants with phosphorus retention, while acid rain research in the 1970s contributed to international legislation curbing emissions. By the 1990s, long-time series were being used to infer climate effects on surface water chemistry and biology. Monitoring data play a key role in implementing the EU Water Framework Directive and other legislation and have been used to show beneficial effects of agricultural management on Baltic Sea eutrophication. The Swedish experience demonstrates that well-designed and financially supported surface water monitoring can be used to understand and manage a range of stressors and societal concerns. Using scientifically sound adaptive monitoring principles to balance continuity and change has ensured long-time series and the capability to address new questions over time.     

Toxic metals in commercial marine fish in Oman with reference to national and international standards

Commercially important fresh (581) and frozen (292) marine fish samples of 10 species were collected from seafood factories and evaluated using AAS and ICP-OES. Metal levels significantly (p < 0.05) varied within and between species. However, there were no significant correlations among metals. There were significant interspecific differences for all metals, and yellowfin tuna had the highest level of cadmium and mercury however, red seabream had maximum numbers above the standards. The metal accumulation significantly varied between bottom feeders of intermediately size locally caught fish. The mean cadmium level ranged from 0.0049 to 0.036 mg kg⁻¹ and 1.37% of the total samples exceeded the EU and FAO standards. Mean lead content varied between 0.029 and 0.196 mg kg⁻¹, few samples crossed the EU (2.63%) and FAO (1.6%) limits. Mean mercury level ranged from 0.015 to 0.101 mg kg⁻¹ and none of the samples exceeded the EU limit. Of the total samples analyzed red seabream (2.06%), yellowfin tuna (1.14%), emperor (0.34%), santer bream (0.22%), king fish (0.11%) and skipjack tuna (0.11%) samples crossed the EU limits. In general, fish from these regions are within the safety levels recommended by various organizations and do not pose a health risk in terms of human diet.