Typical household vacuum cleaners: the collection efficiency and emissions characteristics for fine particles

The issue of fine particle (PM2.5) exposures and their potential health effects is a focus of scientific research because of the recently promulgated National Ambient Air Quality Standard for PM2.5. Before final implementation, the health and exposure basis for the standard will be reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency within the next five years. As part of this process, it is necessary to understand total particle exposure issues and to determine the relative importance of the origin of PM2.5 exposure in various micro-environments. The results presented in this study examine emissions of fine particles from a previously uncharacterized indoor source: the residential vacuum cleaner. Eleven standard vacuum cleaners were tested for the emission rate of fine particles by their individual motors and for their efficiency in collecting laboratory-generated fine particles. An aerosol generator was used to introduce fine potassium chloride (KCl) particles into the vacuum cleaner inlet for the collection efficiency tests. Measurements of the motor emissions, which include carbon, and the KCl aerosol were made using a continuous HIAC/Royco 5130 A light-scattering particle detector. All tests were conducted in a metal chamber specifically designed to completely contain the vacuum cleaner and operate it in a stationary position. For the tested vacuum cleaners, fine particle motor emissions ranged from 9.6 x 10(4) to 3.34 x 10(8) particles/min, which were estimated to be 0.028 to 176 micrograms/min for mass emissions, respectively. The vast majority of particles released were in the range of 0.3-0.5 micron in diameter. The lowest particle emission rate was obtained for a vacuum cleaner that had a high efficiency (HEPA) filter placed after the vacuum cleaner bag and the motor within a sealed exhaust system. This vacuum cleaner removed the KCl particles that escaped the vacuum cleaner bag and the particles emitted by the motor. Results obtained for the KCl collection efficiency tests show > 99% of the fine particles were captured by the two vacuum cleaners that used a HEPA filter. A series of tests conducted on two vacuum cleaners found that the motors also emitted ultra-fine particles above 0.01 micron in diameter at rates of greater than 10(8) ultra-fine particles/CF of air. The model that had the best collection efficiency for fine particles also reduced the ultra-fine particle emissions by a factor of 1 x 10(3).     

Whole House Particle Removal and Clean Air Delivery Rates for In-Duct and Portable Ventilation Systems

Abstract

A novel method for determining whole house particle removal and clean air delivery rates attributable to central and portable ventilation/air cleaning systems is described. The method is used to characterize total and air-cleaner-specific particle removal rates during operation of four in-duct air cleaners and two portable air-cleaning devices in a fully instrumented test home. Operation of in-duct and portable air cleaners typically increased particle removal rates over the baseline rates determined in the absence of operating a central fan or an indoor air cleaner. Removal rates of 0.3- to 0.5-μm particles ranged from 1.5 hr^?1 during operation of an in-duct, 5-in. pleated media filter to 7.2 hr^?1 for an in-duct electrostatic air cleaner in comparison to a baseline rate of 0 hr^?1 when the air handler was operating without a filter. Removal rates for total particulate matter less than 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM_2.5) mass concentrations were 0.5 hr^?1 under baseline conditions, 0.5 hr^?1 during operation of three portable ionic air cleaners, 1 hr^?1 for an in-duct 1-in. media filter, 2.4 hr^?1 for a single high-efficiency particle arrestance (HEPA) portable air cleaner, 4.6 hr^?1 for an in-duct 5-in. media filter, 4.7 hr^?1 during operation of five portable HEPA filters, 6.1 hr^?1 for a conventional in-duct electronic air cleaner, and 7.5 hr^?1 for a high efficiency in-duct electrostatic air cleaner. Corresponding whole house clean air delivery rates for PM_2.5 attributable to the air cleaner independent of losses within the central ventilation system ranged from 2 m³/min for the conventional media filter to 32 m³/min for the high efficiency in-duct electrostatic device. Except for the portable ionic air cleaner, the devices considered here increased particle removal indoors over baseline deposition rates.     

Purification characteristics of fine particulate matter treated by a self-flushing wet electrostatic precipitator equipped with a flexible electrode

A self-flushing wet electrostatic precipitator was developed to investigate the removal performance for fine particles. Flexible material (polypropylene, 840A) and carbon steel in the form of a spiked band were adopted as the collection plate and discharge electrode, respectively. The particle concentration, morphology, and trace-element content were measured by electric low-pressure impactor, scanning electron microscope, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, respectively, before and after the electrostatic precipitator. With increasing gas velocity, the collection efficiency of fine particles (up to 0.8 μm in diameter) increased, while it decreased for particles with diameters larger than 0.8 μm. Increasing the dust inlet concentration increased the collection efficiency up to a point, from which it then declined gradually with further increases in the inlet concentration. The particulate matter after the wet electrostatic precipitator showed different degrees of agglomeration. The collection efficiency of trace elements within PM₁₀ was less than that of the PM₁₀ itself. Notably, the water consumption in the current setup was significantly lower than for other treatment processes of comparable collection efficiencies.

Implications: Wet electrostatic precipitators, as fine filtration equipment, were generally applicable to coal-fired plants to reduce PM_2.5 emissions in China. However, high energy consumption and unstable operation, such as water usage and spray washing directly in the electric field, seriously restricted the further development. The utilization of self-flushing wet electrostatic precipitator can solve these problems to some extent.     

Studies of the coarse particle (2.5–10 μm) component in UK urban atmospheres

An analysis is presented of continuous simultaneous measurement data for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 using TEOM instruments from five sites in the United Kingdom. The results are analysed specifically in relation to the sources and processes influencing the coarse particle fraction (2.5–10 μm). The data show a generally strong correlation between fine and coarse particle concentrations at all sites, with a generally higher proportion of coarse particles in the dryer months of the year. The one rural site shows a notably lower proportion of coarse particles than the urban and suburban sites. Whilst it is possible to disaggregate the coarse particle concentrations into a component which is diluted by increasing windspeed and a component which increases with windspeed and is hence possibly attributable to wind-induced resuspension processes, the latter is only a minor proportion of the total coarse particle concentration. There are appreciable weekday-to-weekend and day-to-night differences between coarse particle concentrations which are most marked at the urban sites indicative of anthropogenic activities being a source of coarse particles. The clearest indication of the likely predominant source of coarse particles arises from an analysis of a data set derived from an urban street canyon site after subtraction of measurements from a nearby urban background location. The data indicate strong relationships of both fine and coarse incremental particle concentrations in the street canyon with incremental NO_x. If incremental fine particles and coarse particles are attributed to exhaust emissions and vehicle-induced resuspension, respectively, then it may be concluded that vehicle-induced resuspension provides a source strength approximately equal to that of exhaust emissions. An analysis of the coarse particle concentration data suggest that episodes of elevated coarse particle concentrations alone very rarely lead to exceedence of the UK air quality standard for PM₁₀ of 50 μg m⁻³ measured as a 24-h running mean.     

On-road measurement of fine particle and nitrogen oxide emissions from light- and heavy-duty motor vehicles

An updated assessment of fine particle emissions from light- and heavy-duty vehicles is needed due to recent changes to the composition of gasoline and diesel fuel, more stringent emission standards applying to new vehicles sold in the 1990s, and the adoption of a new ambient air quality standard for fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) in the United States. This paper reports the measurement of emissions from vehicles in a northern California roadway tunnel during summer 1997. Separate measurements were made of uphill traffic in two tunnel bores: one bore carried both light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty diesel trucks, and the second bore was reserved for light-duty vehicles. Ninety-eight percent of the light-duty vehicles were gasoline-powered. In the tunnel, heavy-duty diesel trucks emitted 24, 37, and 21 times more fine particle, black carbon, and sulfate mass per unit mass of fuel burned than light-duty vehicles. Heavy-duty diesel trucks also emitted 15–20 times the number of particles per unit mass of fuel burned compared to light-duty vehicles. Fine particle emissions from both vehicle classes were composed mostly of carbon; diesel-derived particulate matter contained more black carbon (51±11% of PM_2.5 mass) than did light-duty fine particle emissions (33±4%). Sulfate comprised only 2% of total fine particle emissions for both vehicle classes. Sulfate emissions measured in this study for heavy-duty diesel trucks are significantly lower than values reported in earlier studies conducted before the introduction of low-sulfur diesel fuel. This study suggests that heavy-duty diesel vehicles in California are responsible for nearly half of oxides of nitrogen emissions and greater than three-quarters of exhaust fine particle emissions from on-road motor vehicles.     

A Federal Tax on Energy

Abstract

In this investigation, the collection efficiency of particulate emission control devices (PECDs), particulate matter (PM) emissions, and PM size distribution were determined experimentally at the inlet and outlet of PECDs at five coal-fired power plants. Different boilers, coals, and PECDs are used in these power plants. Measurement in situ was performed by an electrical low-pressure impactor with a sampling system, which consisted of an isokinetic sampler probe, precut cyclone, and two-stage dilution system with a sample line to the instruments. The size distribution was measured over a range from 0.03 to 10 µm. Before and after all of the PECDs, the particle number size distributions display a bimodal distribution. The PM_2.5 fraction emitted to atmosphere includes a significant amount of the mass from the coarse particle mode. The controlled and uncontrolled emission factors of total PM, inhalable PM (PM₁₀), and fine PM P(M_2.5) were obtained. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) and baghouse total collection efficiencies are 96.38–99.89% and 99.94%, respectively. The minimum collection efficiency of the ESP and the baghouse both appear in the particle size range of 0.1–1 µm. In this size range, ESP and baghouse collection efficiencies are 85.79–98.6% and 99.54%. Real-time measurement shows that the mass and number concentration of PM₁₀ will be greatly affected by the operating conditions of the PECDs. The number of emitted particles increases with increasing boiler load level because of higher combustion temperature. During test run periods, the data reproducibility is satisfactory.     

PM2.5 chemical source profiles for vehicle exhaust, vegetative burning, geological material, and coal burning in Northwestern Colorado during 1995

PM_2.5 (particles with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 μm) chemical source profiles applicable to speciated emissions inventories and receptor model source apportionment are reported for geological material, motor vehicle exhaust, residential coal (RCC) and wood combustion (RWC), forest fires, geothermal hot springs; and coal-fired power generation units from northwestern Colorado during 1995. Fuels and combustion conditions are similar to those of other communities of the inland western US. Coal-fired power station profiles differed substantially between different units using similar coals, with the major difference being lack of selenium in emissions from the only unit that was equipped with a dry limestone sulfur dioxide (SO₂) scrubber. SO₂ abundances relative to fine particle mass emissions in power plant emissions were seven to nine times higher than hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) abundances from geothermal springs, and one to two orders of magnitude higher than SO₂ abundances in RCC emissions, implying that the SO₂ abundance is an important marker for primary particle contributions of non-aged coal-fired power station contributions. The sum of organic and elemental carbon ranged from 1% to 10% of fine particle mass in coal-fired power plant emissions, from 5% to 10% in geological material, >50% in forest fire emissions, >60% in RWC emissions, and >95% in RCC and vehicle exhaust emissions. Water-soluble potassium (K⁺) was most abundant in vegetative burning profiles. K⁺/K ratios ranged from 0.1 in geological material profiles to 0.9 in vegetative burning emissions, confirming previous observations that soluble potassium is a good marker for vegetative burning.     

Identification of sources of atmospheric PM at the Pittsburgh Supersite—Part III: Source characterization

Single-particle mass spectrometry data collected during the Pittsburgh Supersite experiment was used to isolate an episode on 27 October 2001 when the measurement site was primarily influenced by emissions from coal combustion sources. Results showed that (a) 60–80% of the particles detected during this event belonged to the Na/Si/K/Ca/Fe/Ga/Pb particle class associated with coal combustion emissions, (b) observation of this class was an isolated event occurring only during the hours of 06:00–14:00 EST, and (c) the detection of these particles was highly correlated with shifts in wind direction. Coincident SMPS, TEOM PM_2.5, SO₂, NO_x, and O₃ measurements were in excellent agreement with the single-particle results in terms of both identifying and characterizing this event. The three most likely point sources of these particles were isolated and Gaussian plume dispersion models were used in reverse to predict their particle number, particle mass, and gas phase emissions. Calculated mass emission rates were in general agreement with the US EPA National Emissions Inventory (NEI) database emissions estimates and the Title V PM₁₀ limit. The largest of the three sources emits about 2.4×10¹⁷ fine and ultrafine particles per second.     

Fine and ultrafine particles emitted from laser printers as indoor air contaminants in German offices

Purpose

Various publications indicate that the operation of laser printers and photocopiers may be associated with health effects due to the release of gaseous components and fine and ultrafine particles (UFP). However, only sparse studies are available that evaluate the possible exposure of office workers to printer emissions under real conditions. Therefore, the aim of our study was to assess the exposure of office workers to particulate matter released from laser printers and photocopiers.

Methods

Concentrations of fine particles and UFP were measured before, during, and after the operation of laser printing devices in 63 office rooms throughout Germany. Additionally, the particles were characterized by electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.

Results

A significant increase of fine particles and UFP was identified in ambient workplace air during and after the printing processes. Particle fractions between 0.23 and 20???m emitted by the office machines significantly affect particle mass concentrations while printing 500 pages, i.e., during the printing process, PM_0.23?C20, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀ concentrations increased in 43 out of the evaluated 62 office rooms investigated. Additionally, a significant increase was observed in submicrometer particles, with median particle number concentrations of 6,503 particles/cm³ before and 18,060 particles/cm³ during the printing process.

Conclusions

Our data indicate that laser printers and photocopiers could be a relevant source of fine particles and particularly UFP in office rooms.     

Estimation of Organic Compound Emissions from Waste Lagoons

Abstract

With the recent focus on fine particle matter (PM_2.5),new, self-consistent data are needed to characterize emissions from combustion sources. Such data are necessary for health assessment and air quality modeling. To address this need, emissions data for gas-fired combustors are presented here, using dilution sampling as the reference.The dilution method allows for collection of emitted particles under conditions simulating cooling and dilution during entry from the stack into the air. The sampling and analysis of the collected particles in the presence of precursor gases, SO₂, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compound, and NH₃ is discussed; the results include data from eight gas fired units, including a dual-fuel institutional boiler and a diesel engine powered electricity generator. These data are compared with results in the literature for heavy-duty diesel vehicles and stationary sources using coal or wood as fuels. The results show that the gas-fired combustors have very low PM_2.5 mass emission rates in the range of ～10_-4 lb/million Btu (MMBTU) compared with the diesel backup generator with particle filter, with ～5 × 10_-3 lb/MMBTU. Even higher mass emission rates are found in coal-fired systems, with rates of ～0.07 lb/MMBTU for a bag-filter-controlled pilot unit burning eastern bituminous coal. The characterization of PM_2.5 chemical composition from the gas-fired units indicates that much of the measured primary particle mass in PM_2.5 samples is organic or elemental carbon and, to a much less extent, sulfate. Metal emissions are quite low compared with the diesel engines and the coal- or woodfueled combustors. The metals found in the gas-fired combustor particles are low in concentration, similar in concentration to ambient particles. The interpretation of the particulate carbon emissions is complicated by the fact that an approximately equal amount of particulate carbon (mainly organic carbon) is found on the particle collector and a backup filter. It is likely that measurement artifacts, mostly adsorption of volatile organic compounds on quartz filters, are positively biasing “true” particulate carbon emission results.     

Loss of Particle Nitrate from Teflon Sampling Filters: Effects on Measured Gravimetric Mass in California and in the IMPROVE Network

Abstract

The extent of mass loss on Teflon filters caused by ammonium nitrate volatilization can be a substantial fraction of the measured particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5)or 10 μm (PM₁₀) mass and depends on where and when it was collected. There is no straightforward method to correct for the mass loss using routine monitoring data. In southern California during the California Acid Deposition Monitoring Program, 30-40% of the gravimetric PM_2.5 mass was lost during summer daytime. Lower mass losses occurred at more remote locations. The estimated potential mass loss in the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments network was consistent with the measured loss observed in California. The biased mass measurement implies that use of Federal Reference Method data for fine particles may lead to control strategies that are biased toward sources of fugitive dust, other primary particle emission sources, and stable secondary particles (e.g., sulfates). This analysis clearly supports the need for speciated analysis of samples collected in a manner that preserves volatile species. Finally, although there is loss of volatile nitrate (NO₃ ^?) from Teflon filters during sampling, the NO₃ ^? remaining after collection is quite stable. We found little loss of NO₃ ^? from Teflon filters after 2 hr under vacuum and 1 min of heating by a cyclotron proton beam.     

Formation of fine particles enriched by V and Ni from heavy oil combustion: Anthropogenic sources and drop-tube furnace experiments

The present study attempts to investigate the emission characteristics of fine particles with special emphasis on nickel and vanadium metal elements emitted from the heavy oil combustion in industrial boilers and power plant, which are typical anthropogenic sources in Korea. A series of combustion experiments were performed to investigate the emission characteristics of particles in the size range of submicron by means of drop-tube furnace with three major domestic heavy oils. Cascade impactors were utilized to determine the size distribution of particulates as well as to analyze the partitioning enrichment of vanadium and nickel in various size ranges. Experimental results were compared with field data of particle size distribution and metal partitioning at commercial utility boilers with heavy oil combustion. Such data were interpreted by chemical equilibrium and particle growth mechanism by means of computational models. In general, fine particles were the major portion of PM₁₀ emitted from the heavy oil combustion, with significant fraction of ultra-fine particles. The formation of ultra-fine particles through nucleation/condensation/coagulation from heavy oil combustion was confirmed by field and experimental data. Vanadium and nickel were more enriched in fine particles, particularly in ultra-fine particles. The conventional air pollution devices showed inefficient capability to remove ultra-fine particles enriched with hazardous transition metal elements such as vanadium and nickel.     

Prescribed Burns and Wildfires in Colorado: Impacts of Mitigation Measures on Indoor Air Particulate Matter

Abstract

Wildfires and prescribed burns are receiving increasing attention as sources of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5). The goal of this research project was to understand the impact of mitigation strategies for residences impacted by scheduled prescribed burns and wildfires. Pairs of residences were solicited to have PM_2.5 concentrations monitored inside and outside of their houses during four fires. The effect of using air cleaners on indoor PM_2.5 was investigated, as well as the effect of keeping windows closed. Appropriately sized air cleaners were provided to one of each pair of residences; occupants of all of the residences were asked to keep windows shut and minimize opening of exterior doors. Additionally, residents were asked to record all of the activities that may be a source of particulate matter, such as cooking and cleaning. Measurements were made during one prescribed burn and three wildfires during the 2002 fire season. Outdoor 24‐hr average PM_2.5 concentrations ranging from 6 to 38 µg/m³ were measured during the fires, compared with levels of 2–5 µg/m³ during background measurements when no fires were burning. During the fires, PM_2.5 was <3 µg/m³ inside all of the houses with air cleaners installed. This corresponds with a decrease of 63–88% in homes with the air cleaners operating when compared with homes without air cleaners. In the homes without the air cleaners, measured indoor concentrations were 58–100% of the concentrations measured outdoors.     

High volume electrostatic field-sampler for collection of fine particle bulk samples

A high volume electrostatic field-sampler was developed for collection of fine particles, which easily can be recovered for subsequent sample characterisation and bioassays. The sampler was based on a commercial office air cleaner and consisted of a prefilter followed by electrostatic collection plates operating at 2.7 kV. The sampler performance was characterised for 26 nm to 5.4 μm-size particles in urban street air. The collection efficiency reached a maximum (60–70%) between 0.2 and 0.8 μm and dropped to ∼25% at 30 nm and 2.5 μm, respectively. After extraction in water, the particle loss was<2%. The extraction efficiency for dry lyophilised particulate matter was above 80%, allowing retrievement of ∼12 mg day⁻¹ in urban street air at PM₁₀ levels of ∼24 μg m⁻³. The ozone generating capacity of the corona discharge during operation was on the order of 10 ppb. A polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) degradation test using benzo[a]pyrene as a model showed that ∼85% was degraded after 24 h. However, similar results were observed when the corona discharge was switched off. Hence, the ozone and other corona discharge reactants do not appear to contribute considerably to PAH-degradation. The overall results show that the sampler type is a promising alternative to traditional sampling of fine particles for bulk analysis and bioassays. The main advantages are simple operation, high stability, high quantifiable particle recovery rates and low cost.     

Journey-time exposure to particulate air pollution

Journey-time exposures to particulate air pollution were investigated in Leicester, UK, between January and March 2005. Samples of TSP, PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and PM₁ were simultaneously collected using light scattering devices whilst journeys were made by walking an in-car. Over a period of two months, 33 pairs of walking and in-car measurements were collected along two circular routes. Average exposures while walking were seen to be higher than those found in-car for each of the particle fractions: average walking to in-car ratios were 1.2 (± 0.6), 1.5 (± 0.6), 1.3 (± 0.6), and 1.4 (± 0.6) μg m⁻³ for coarse (TSP–PM₁₀), intermediate (PM₁₀–PM_2.5), fine (PM_2.5–PM₁), and very fine particles (PM₁), respectively. Correlations between walking and in-car exposures were seen to be weak for coarse particles (r=0.10, p=0.58), moderate for the intermediate particles (r=0.49, p<0.01) but strong for fine (r=0.89, p<0.01) and very fine (r=0.90, P<0.01) particles. PM₁₀ exposures while walking were on average 70% higher than a nearby roadside fixed-site monitor whilst in-car exposures were 25% higher than the same fixed-site monitor. Particles with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm were seen to be highly correlated between walking and in-car particle exposures and a rural fixed-site monitor about 30 km south of Leicester.     

Development and Evaluation of an Impactor for a PM2.5 Speciation Sampler

ABSTRACT

A conventional impactor for a particle speciation sampler was developed and validated through laboratory and field tests. The speciation sampler consists of the following components: a PM_2.5 conventional impactor that removes particles larger than 2.5 μm, an all-glass, coated honeycomb diffusion denuder, and a 47-mm filter pack. The speciation sampler can operate at two different sampling rates: 10 and 16.7 L/min. An experimental characterization of the impactor’s performance was conducted. The impactor’s collection efficiency was examined as a function of critical design parameters such as Reynolds number, the distance from the nozzle exit to the impac-tion plate, and the impaction substrate coating method. The bounce of particles larger than the cut point was successfully minimized by using a greased surface as the im-paction substrate. Additionally, a series of field intercomparison experiments were conducted at both 10 and 16.7 L/min airflow. PM_2.5 mass and SO₄ ^2- concentrations were measured and compared with the Federal Reference Method (FRM) and found to be in good agreement. Results of the laboratory chamber tests also indicated that the impactor’s performance was in good agreement with the FRM.     

Sources and chemical composition of atmospheric fine and coarse particles in the Helsinki area

During April 1996–June 1997 size-segregated atmospheric aerosol particles were collected at an urban and a rural site in the Helsinki area by utilising virtual impactors (VI) and Berner low-pressure impactors (BLPI). In addition, VI samples were collected at a semi-urban site during October 1996–May 1997. The average PM_2.3 (fine particle) concentrations at the urban and rural sites were 11.8 and 8.4 μg/m³, and the PM_2.3−15 (coarse particle) concentrations were 12.8 and about 5 μg/m³, respectively. The difference in fine particle mass concentrations suggests that on average, more than one third of the fine mass at the urban site is of local origin. Evaporation of fine particle nitrate from the VI Teflon filters during sampling varied similarly at the three sites, the average evaporation being about 50–60%.The average fine particle concentrations of the chemical components (25 elements and 13 ions) appeared to be fairly similar at the three sites for most components, which suggests that despite the long-range transport, the local emissions of these components were relatively evenly distributed in the Helsinki area. Exceptions were the average fine particles Ba, Fe, Sb and V concentrations that were clearly highest at the urban site pointing to traffic (Ba, Fe, Sb) and to combustion of heavy fuel oil (V) as the likely local sources. The average coarse particle concentrations for most components were highest at the urban site and lowest at the rural site.Average chemical composition of fine particles was fairly similar at the urban and rural sites: non-analysed fraction (mainly carbonaceous material and water) 43% and 37%, sulphate 21% and 25%, crustal matter 12% and 13%, nitrate 12% and 11%, ammonium 9% and 10% and sea-salt 2.5% and 3.2%, respectively. At the semi-urban site also, the average fine particle composition was similar. At the urban site, the year round average composition of coarse particles was dominated by crustal matter (59%) and the non-analysed components (28%, mainly carbonaceous material and water), while the other contributions were much lower: sea-salt 7%, nitrate 4% and sulphate 2%. At the rural site, the coarse samples were collected in spring and summer and the percentage was clearly lower for crustal matter (37%) and sea-salt (3%) but higher for the not-analysed fraction (51%). At the semi-urban site, the average composition of coarse particles was nearly identical to that at the urban site.Correlations between the chemical components were calculated separately for fine and coarse particles. In urban fine particles sulphate, ammonium, Tl, oxalate and PM_2.3 mass correlated with each other and originated mainly from long-range transport. The sea-salt ions Na⁺, Cl⁻ and Mg²⁺ formed another group and still another group was formed by the organic anions oxalate, malonate, succinate, glutarate and methane sulphonate. Ni and V correlated strongly pointing to combustion of heavy fuel oil as the likely source. In addition, some groups with lower correlations were detected. At the rural and semi-urban sites, the correlating components were rather similar to those at the urban site, although differences were also observed.     

Measurements of Ultrafine Particles and Other Vehicular Pollutants inside a Mobile Exposure System on Los Angeles Freeways

Abstract

A mobile exposure and air pollution measurement system was developed and used for on-freeway ultrafine particle health effects studies. A nine-passenger van was modified with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration system that can deliver filtered or unfiltered air to an exposure chamber inside the van. State-of-the-art instruments were used to measure concentration and size distribution of fine and ultrafine particles and the concentration of carbon monoxide (CO), black carbon (BC), particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) mass, and oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) inside the exposure chamber. This paper presents the construction and technical details of the van and air pollutant concentrations collected in 32 2-hr runs on two major Los Angeles freeways, Interstate 405 (I-405; mostly gasoline traffic) and Interstate 710 (I-710; large proportion of heavy-duty diesel traffic). More than 97% of particles were removed when the flow through the filter box was switched from bypass mode to filter mode while the vehicle was driving on both freeways. The filtration system thus provides a great particulate matter exposure contrast while keeping gas-phase pollutant concentrations the same. Under bypass mode, average total particle number concentration observed inside the exposure chamber was around 8.4 × 10⁴ and 1.3 × 10⁵ particles cm^-3 on the I-405 and the I-710 freeways, respectively. Bimodal size distributions were consistent and similar for both freeways with the first mode around 16–20 nm and the second mode around 50–55 nm. BC and particle-bound PAH concentrations were more than two times greater on the I-710 than on the I-405 freeway. Very weak correlations were observed between total particle number concentrations and other vehicular pollutants on the freeways.     

Size and Composition Distributions of Particulate Matter Emissions: Part 1—Light-Duty Gasoline Vehicles

Abstract

Size-resolved particulate matter (PM) emitted from light-duty gasoline vehicles (LDGVs) was characterized using filter-based samplers, cascade impactors, and scanning mobility particle size measurements in the summer 2002. Thirty LDGVs, with different engine and emissions control technologies (model years 1965–2003; odometer readings 1264–207,104 mi), were tested on a chassis dynamometer using the federal test procedure (FTP), the unified cycle (UC), and the correction cycle (CC). LDGV PM emissions were strongly correlated with vehicle age and emissions control technology. The oldest models had average ultrafine PM_0.1 (0.056- to 0.1-μm aerodynamic diameter) and fine PM_1.8 (≤1.8-μm aerodynamic diame ter) emission rates of 9.6 mg/km and 213 mg/km, respectively. The newest vehicles had PM_0.1 and PM_1.8 emis sions of 51 μg/km and 371 μg/km, respectively. Light duty trucks and sport utility vehicles had PM_0.1 and PM_1.8 emissions nearly double the corresponding emission rates from passenger cars. Higher PM emissions were associated with cold starts and hard accelerations. The FTP driving cycle produced the lowest emissions, followed by the UC and the CC. PM mass distributions peaked between 0.1-and 0.18-μm particle diameter for all vehicles except those emitting visible smoke, which peaked between 0.18 and 0.32 μm. The majority of the PM was composed of carbonaceous material, with only trace amounts of water-soluble ions. Elemental carbon (EC) and organic matter (OM) had similar size distributions, but the EC/OM ratio in LDGV exhaust particles was a strong function of the adopted emissions control technology and of vehicle maintenance. Exhaust from LDGV classes with lower PM emissions generally had higher EC/OM ratios. LDGVs adopting newer technologies were characterized by the highest EC/OM ratios, whereas OM dominated PM emissions from older vehicles. Driving cycles with cold starts and hard accelerations produced higher EC/OM ratios in ultrafine particles.     

The Influences of Ambient Particle Composition and Size on Particle Infiltration in Los Angeles,CA, Residences

Abstract

Particle infiltration is a key determinant of the indoor concentrations of ambient particles. Few studies have examined the influence of particle composition on infiltration, particularly in areas with high concentrations of volatile particles, such as ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃). A comprehensive indoor monitoring study was conducted in 17 Los Angeles–area homes. As part of this study, indoor/outdoor concentration ratios during overnight (nonindoor source) periods were used to estimate the fraction of ambient particles remaining airborne indoors, or the particle infiltration factor (F_INF), for fine particles (PM_2.5), its nonvolatile (i.e., black carbon [BC]) and volatile (i.e., nitrate [NO₃ ^?]) components, and particle sizes ranging between 0.02 and 10 μm. F_INF was highest for BC (median = 0.84) and lowest for NO₃ ^? (median = 0.18). The low F_INF for NO₃ ^? was likely because of volatilization of NO₃ ^? particles once indoors, in addition to depositional losses upon building entry. The F_INF for PM_2.5 (median = 0.48) fell between those for BC and NO₃ ^?, reflecting the contributions of both particle components to PM_2.5. F_INF varied with particle size, air-exchange rate, and outdoor NO₃ ^? concentrations. The F_INF for particles between 0.7 and 2 μm in size was considerably lower during periods of high as compared with low outdoor NO₃ ^? concentrations, suggesting that outdoor NO₃ ^? particles were of this size. This study demonstrates that infiltration of PM_2.5 varies by particle component and is lowest for volatile species, such as NH₄NO₃. Our results suggest that volatile particle components may influence the ability for outdoor PM concentrations to represent indoor and, thus, personal exposures to particles of ambient origin, because volatilization of these particles causes the composition of PM_2.5 to differ indoors and outdoors. Consequently, particle composition likely influences observed epidemiologic relationships based on outdoor PM concentrations, especially in areas with high concentrations of NH₄NO₃ and other volatile particles.