Levels of synthetic musks; bromocyclene and PCBs in eel (Anguilla anguilla) and PCBs in sediment samples from some waters of Berlin/Germany.

The purpose of this study was to identify firstly the extent of contamination both of the aquatic biota and of sediments and secondly any regional differences in the concentrations of these compounds. In 1996, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, including their coplanar congeners) were measured in 58 eel and 50 sediment samples. Furthermore, the veterinary pharmacetical bromocyclene and the nitro musks were determined in 84 (1995) and 122 (1996) eel samples. Polycyclic musk fragrances were additionally determined in analyses carried out in 1996. The mean values obtained during the two measurement periods (1995 and 1996) were 24 and 12 micrograms/kg fw. for musk xylene, 41 and 39 micrograms/kg fw. for musk ketone, 14 and 7 micrograms/kg fw. for bromocyclene and, in 1996, 592 micrograms/kg fw. for HHCB (maximum: 4131 micrograms/kg fw.). Decreasing contamination levels are seen for musk xylene and bromocylene but not for musk ketone. This tendency, and the high amounts of polycyclic musk fragrances in the edible parts of eel show that these musks are widely being used in place of nitro musks and that they reach the aquatic system via waste waters, especially those of sewage treatment plants. The mean levels of PCBs in the biota samples of a highly polluted area were 1227 micrograms/kg fw. or 119 pgTEQ/g (sediment: 203 micrograms/kg dw.) and of a slightly polluted area 340 micrograms/kg fw. or 49 TEQ/g (sediment: 47 micrograms/kg dw.).     

Synthetic musk fragrances in trout from Danish fish farms and human milk

Synthetic musk compounds used in detergents and cosmetics include nitro and polycyclic musk compounds. These compounds are discharged after use via domestic wastewater and sewage treatment plants to the aquatic environment. Quantitative detection of nitro musk and polycyclic musk compounds by GC/HRMS in Danish farmed trout and human milk from primiparous mothers are reported. The polycyclic musk, HHCB, dominated the synthetic musk compounds found in trout samples from 1999 with a median concentration of 5.0microg/kg fresh weight (n.d.-52.6microg/kg fresh weight) and in trout samples collected in 2003 and 2004 with a median concentration of 1.2microg/kg fresh weight (n.d.-28.0microg/kg fresh weight). It was also found that the concentration of musk xylene in trout sampled at the same fish farms decreased considerably from a median concentration of 5.1microg/kg fresh weight in 1992 to a median of 0.5microg/kg fresh weight in 1999 and to a median less than the detection limit (0.23microg/kg fresh weight) in 2003. HHCB also dominated in Danish human milk samples collected in 1999 with a median concentration of 147microg/kg fat (38.0-422microg/kg fat). Human dietary intake assessment and body burden calculations on data from 1999 indicate that the main source of exposure to human cannot be attributed to the consumption of farmed trout.     

Synthetic polycyclic musks in Hong Kong sewage sludge

Synthetic polycyclic musks [Cashmeran (DPMI), Celestolide (ADBI), Phantolide (AHMI), Traseolide (ATII), Tonalide (AHTN), and Galaxolide (HHCB)] were determined in dewatered sludge samples from 10 major sewage treatment plants in Hong Kong using primary treatment (PT), secondary treatment (SecT) or chemical-enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) methods. The concentrations of HHCB, AHTN, AHMI and ADBI ranged from below detection limits to 78.6mg/kg dry weight. HHCB and AHTN were the two predominant polycyclic musks in sludge samples, suggesting the extensive use of these two polycyclic musks in Hong Kong. Polycyclic musk levels in CEPT sludge were significantly higher than those in SecT and PT sludge, suggesting that CEPT sludge has a higher ability to retain polycyclic musks. Comparisons to global concentrations revealed that HHCB and AHTN concentrations detected in Hong Kong sludge ranked first and second respectively. However, the estimated levels of HHCB and AHTN in the discharged effluent from sewage treatment plants may pose low potential risks to aquatic organisms according to the threshold effect levels derived for fish. Nevertheless, the polycyclic musks released in sewage treatment plant effluents may bioconcentrate and bioaccumulate in the marine environment in Hong Kong. Therefore, monitoring studies in marine ecosystems, particularly on the two prevailing polycyclic musks, are necessary.     

Concentrations and specific loads of polycyclic musks in sewage sludge originating from a monitoring network in Switzerland

Polycyclic musks (HHCB, AHTN, ADBI, AHDI, ATII) and a metabolite of HHCB (HHCB-lactone) were analyzed in sewage sludge samples within the framework of a monitoring network in Switzerland. Mean values in stabilised sludge from 16 wastewater treatment plants were 20.3 mg/kg d.m. for HHCB, 7.3 mg/kg d.m. for AHTN and 1.8 mg/kg d.m. for HHCB-lactone, respectively. Contents of ADBI, AHDI and ATII were between 0.1 and 1.8 g/kg d.m. The results show that polycyclic musks origin mainly from private households and that loads from craft industry, industry and atmospheric deposition are negligible. The technology of wastewater treatment and sludge processing seems to be of minor importance for degradation processes of polycyclic musks. The calculated input in wastewater of polycyclic musks is lower by a factor of 5-7 than the estimates based on use volumes. This discrepancy might be explained by degradation processes, other emission pathways than wastewater or inappropriate estimation of production volumes.     

Blood concentrations of polycyclic musks in healthy young adults

Knowledge on the concentration of polycyclic musk fragrance compounds in human blood is sparse. This study examined the concentrations of six polycyclic musks in blood samples from healthy volunteers. Blood was taken from hundred healthy students of the Medical University of Vienna. The lipophilic fraction was extracted and after purification analyzed by GC-MS. Study participants also completed a questionnaire on the use of cosmetics, about nutrition and other life-style aspects. Two compounds -- galaxolide and tonalide -- were identified in higher percentages of the blood plasma samples. Maximum plasma levels over 100 ng/l were also only found for galaxolide (4100 ng/l) and tonalide (800 ng/l). Women showed significantly higher levels than men. In a statistical multivariate approach only use of body lotion and age were predictive of positive galaxolide concentrations. For tonalide no significant predictor could be found. The findings mirror the replacement of nitro musk fragrances by polycyclic musks, mainly galaxolide. The high concentrations of galaxolide in human blood raise concern since few toxicological data are available.     

The concentrations and distribution of polycyclic musks in a typical cosmetic plant

Polycyclic musks [cashmeran (DPMI), celestolide (ADBI), phantolide (AHMI), traseolide (ATII), tonalide (AHTN) and galaxolide (HHCB)] in the air, wastewater, sludge samples of a typical cosmetic plant were analyzed. DPMI, ADBI, HHCB and AHTN were found in all samples, and ATII was not found in any sample. HHCB and AHTN were the major components in all samples. The polycyclic musk concentrations were very high in the air of the cosmetic plant, and polycyclic musks were mostly contained in the gas phase at the percentage of 86.35-97.70%. Average polycyclic musk concentrations in effluent were high, and ranged from 0.62 to 32.06 microgl-1. The removal efficiency during the active sludge wastewater treatment was also high, resulting from the adsorption of those compounds into the sludge. So the polycyclic musk concentrations were very high in the primary sludge and second sludge, and ranged from 1.78 to 92.45 mgkg-1 (dry), and from 2.87 to 65.67 mgkg-1 (dry), respectively. Results suggested that the sludge needed to be further treated to make polycyclic musks less influence to the environment.     

Concentrations and assessment of exposure to siloxanes and synthetic musks in personal care products from China

We investigated the concentrations and profiles of 15 siloxanes (four cyclic siloxanes, D₄-D₇; 11 linear siloxanes, L₄-L₁₄), four synthetic musks (two polycyclic musks, HHCB and AHTN; two nitro musks, MX and MK), and HHCB-lactone, in 158 personal care products marketed in China. Siloxanes were detected in 88% of the samples analyzed, at concentrations as high as 52.6 mg g⁻¹; Linear siloxanes were the predominant compounds. Among synthetic musks, more than 80% of the samples contained at least one of these compounds, and their total concentrations were as high as 1.02 mg g⁻¹. HHCB was the predominant musk in all of the samples analyzed, on average, accounting for 52% of the total musk concentrations. Based on the median concentrations of siloxanes and musks and the average daily usage amounts of consumer products, dermal exposure rates in adults were calculated to be 3.69 and 3.38 mg d⁻¹ for siloxanes and musks, respectively.     

Persistent organic pollutants, brominated flame retardants and synthetic musks in fish from remote alpine lakes in Switzerland

Remote alpine lakes do not receive any direct aquatic inputs from anthropogenic activities. Therefore, these ecosystems may receive persistent organic compounds (POPs) by direct atmospheric deposition, only. Consequently, fish dwelling in these ecosystems represent an excellent indicator for the long-term atmospheric input of bioaccumulating and persistent contaminants. In the present study, fish from seven remote alpine lakes, located between 2062 and 2637 m above sea level in south eastern Switzerland (Grisons), were investigated. Lipid-based fish tissue concentrations of pesticides including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its transformation products (2,4'-DDT, 4,4'-DDT, 2,4'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD), 4,4'-DDD, 2,4'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene (DDE), 4,4'-DDE), as well as dieldrin, heptachlor exo-epoxide (HPEX), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) were measured. In addition, seven synthetic musk compounds (Crysolide (ADBI), Phantolide (AHMI), Fixolide (AHTN), Traseolide (ATII), Galaxolide (HHCB), musk ketone (MK), and musk xylene (MX)) were determined. Concentrations of PCB, PCDD/F, and PBDE were in the same range as in fish from the major lakes situated in the Swiss plateau, indicating mainly atmospheric input of these persistent compounds. In contrast, concentrations of synthetic musks which are used as fragrances in laundry detergents and cosmetic products were distinctly lower than concentrations in fish from Swiss plateau lakes which receive inputs from waste water treatment plants.     

Determination of polycyclic musks in sewage sludge from Guangdong, China using GC-EI-MS

Polycyclic musks [Cashmeran (DPMI), Celestolide (ADBI), Phantolide (AHMI), Traseolide (ATII), Tonalide (AHTN) and Galaxolide (HHCB)] were Soxhlet extracted, separated and analyzed in sewage sludge from six different wastewater treatment plants from Guangdong, China, using GC and GC-EI-MS. DPMI, ADBI, HHCB, AHTN were found in all samples, and ATII was not found in any sample. AHMI was detected in five out of six samples. HHCB and AHTN were the two major polycyclic musks found in highest concentrations in sludge. The sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants contained HHCB, AHTN and DPMI at concentrations between 5.416 and 21.214, 0.715 and 6.195 and 0.599 and 2.870 mg/kg (dry), respectively. The highest concentration was found in sludge from one cosmetic plant at 703.681 mg HHCB/kg (dry). The results indicate that there are two sources of polycyclic musks: domestic sewage and industrial wastewater.     

Sample storage and extraction efficiencies in determination of polycyclic and nitro musks in sewage sludge

Analytical technology is continuously improving, developing better methods for isolating and concentrating trace compounds in environmental samples. Polycyclic and nitro musks (PNMs) are one group of emerging trace compounds detected in municipal wastewater. Differences in sample storage, preparation, and extraction methods for their measurement have led to variability in results. We analyzed 11 PNMs by GC/MS and compared the results of different storage times and extraction methods (supercritical fluid (SFE) or microwave-assisted (MAE)) for 202 samples of primary sludge, waste activated sludge (WAS), raw sludge, and aerobically/anaerobically digested biosolids collected from Canadian municipal wastewater treatment plants. Sixty-three air-dried samples were extracted by SFE, and 139 air-dried, centrifuged, or filtered samples were extracted by MAE. The mean surrogate recoveries were 89% (standard deviation (SD)=11%) for d(10)-anthracene by SFE and 88% (SD=14%) for d(10)-phenanthrene by MAE. Storage study results showed that PNM concentrations changed by a mean of 7% and 9% for primary sludge and WAS respectively after four weeks and decreased up to 25% after 13.5 months of storage in amber glass containers at -18 degrees C. Air-drying of sludge at room temperature caused losses of about 50% of PNM concentrations compared to centrifugation. The proportions of PNMs present in the liquid phase of sludge samples were less than 5% compared to proportions in the sludge solids. The most complete liquid-solid separation was achieved by filtration of frozen/thawed sludge samples, producing a liquid phase that contained less than 1% of the total musk content of the sample.     

Contamination of human milk in Middle Hesse, Germany--a cross-sectional study on the changing levels of chlorinated pesticides, PCB congeners and recent levels of nitro musks

Human milk samples from women in Middle Hesse, Germany were chemically analyzed for contamination levels of alpha-, beta- and gamma-HCH, HCB, p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDT as well as the PCB-congeners no. 28, 31, 49, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, 156, 170 and 180. Changes in concentrations of these compounds in human milk over an extended time period were studied by comparing samples from 1984/85, 1990/91 and 1995. In addition, concentrations of the nitro-aromatic compounds musk xylene and musk ketone were determined in the 1995 samples. The study showed statistically highly significant (p<0.001) reductions in levels of beta- and gamma-HCH, HCB, p,p'-DDE and p,p'-DDT, in human milk from 1995 compared to samples from 1984/85. A weakly significant reduction (p<0.05) of alpha-HCH was also observed. For low-chlorinated PCB congeners, on the other hand, a highly significant increase of PCB no. 28 was detected and concentrations of congeners no. 31, 49 and 52 remained unchanged. Concentrations of the high-chlorinated congeners no. 101, 138, 153 and 180 dropped (highly significant). A highly significant reduction of PCB no. 118 and 156 occurred between 1990/91 and 1995, but a highly significant increase was found for no. 170. Lower levels of hydrocarbon contamination of human milk samples from 1995 than were found in samples from 1984/85 and 1990/91 can be seen to result partially from voluntary reductions, but primarily reflect restrictive environmental legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany. Mean concentrations of musk xylene and musk ketone in samples from 1995 were 41 microg/kg and 10 microg/kg milk fat, respectively.     

Inputs and distributions of synthetic musk fragrances in an estuarine and coastal environment; a case study

Synthetic musks are ubiquitous contaminants in the environment. Compartmental distributions (dissolved, suspended particle associated and sedimentary) of the compounds throughout an axial estuarine transect and in coastal waters are reported. High concentrations of Galaxolide^® (HHCB) and Tonalide^® (AHTN) (987-2098 ng/L and 55-159 ng/L, respectively) were encountered in final effluent samples from sewage treatment plants (STPs) discharging into the Tamar and Plym Estuaries (UK), with lower concentrations of Celestolide^® (ADBI) (4-13 ng/L), Phantolide^® (AHMI) (6-9 ng/L), musk xylene (MX) (4-7 ng/L) and musk ketone (MK) (18-30 ng/L). Rapid dilution from the outfalls is demonstrated with resulting concentrations of HHCB spanning from 5 to 30 ng/L and those for AHTN from 3 to 15 ng/L. The other musks were generally not detected in the estuarine and coastal waters. The suspended particulate matter (SPM) and sedimentary profiles and compositions (HHCB:AHTN ratios) generally reflect the distribution in the water column with highest concentrations adjacent to sewage outfalls.     

Temperature dependent properties of environmentally important synthetic musks

Environmental fate determining physical properties including their temperature dependence for five nitro musks and for seven polycyclic musks were estimated. The properties evaluated were vapor pressure in a solid and liquid state (PS and PL), solubility in water (S), Henry's law coefficient (H = PL/S) and log octanol-water partition coefficient (log KOW). Gas chromatography for starting values of vapor pressure estimation and HPLC experiments at 5-20 degrees C for comparison of the theoretical versus experimental solubilities in water were performed. The values of temperature (T) dependence coefficients (Ai and Bi) in equations: log (Property)i = Ai - Bi/T were determined. Values of properties were compared with literature-based data, and an example of their use in environmental hazard estimation by fate modeling was given.     

Synthetic musks in the aquatic environment and personal care products in Shanghai, China

The concentrations and distributions of six polycyclic musks and two nitro musks in Suzhou Creek, influent/effluent of a sewage treatment plant (STP), and household commodities were investigated and discussed in this study. The levels of 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexa-methylcyclopenta(g)-2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) in Suzhou Creek were 3-78 ng g(-1) (dry weight) and 2-31 ng g(-1) (dry weight) in sediments, while 20-93 ng l(-1) and 8-20 ng l(-1) in surface waters. The results indicated a low proportion of wastewater burden in this river. The concentrations of HHCB and AHTN in the effluent of the STP were 5- to 6-fold higher than those in Suzhou Creek. The amounts discharged into the aquatic environment from sewage in Shanghai are 1.26 t (HHCB) and 0.38 t (AHTN) in 2007, and the input into the STPs is estimated to be HHCB 0.2 g y(-1) and AHTN 0.06 g y(-1) per inhabitant, respectively. A broad concentration range of HHCB and AHTN could be observed in household commodities. The distributions are in accordance with the profiles of musks in aquatic environment, with HHCB and AHTN being the major components.     

Concentrations of synthetic musk compounds in personal care and sanitation products and human exposure profiles through dermal application

Synthetic musks, such as 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) and 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-benzopyran (HHCB), musk ketone (MK) and musk xylene (MX), are used as an alternative for natural musk. Due to their widespread use, these synthetic compounds turned up in different environmental compartments, such as wastewater, human and animal tissues. Yet, little is known about their distribution and occurrence in personal care and household products, information needed in order to evaluate the different human exposure routes. This paper gives an overview of the synthetic musk levels in six different product categories: body lotions, perfumes, deodorants, hair care products, shower products and sanitation products. Especially body lotions, perfumes and deodorants contained high levels of synthetic musks. Maximum concentrations of HHCB, AHTN, MX and MK were 22 mg g(-1), 8 mg g(-1), 26 microg g(-1) and 0.5 microg g(-1), respectively. By combining these results with the average usage of consumer products, low-, medium- and high-exposure profiles through dermal application could be estimated. HHCB was the highest contributor to the total amount of synthetic musks in every exposure profile (18-23 700 microg d(-1)). Exposure to MK and MX did not increase substantially (10-20-fold) between low- and high-exposure profiles, indicating that these compounds cover a less broad range. In comparison, exposure to HHCB and AHTN increased up to 10 000 fold between low- and high-exposure.     

Preliminary study on the occurrence and distribution of polycyclic musks in a wastewater treatment plant in Guandong, China

The occurrence and distributions of six polycyclic musks were studied in influent, primary and effluent waters from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in Guangdong. Five polycyclic musk compounds, 1,2,3,5,6,7-hexahydro-1,1,2,3,3-pentamethyl-4H-inden-4-one (DPMI), 4-acetyl-1,1-dimethyl-6-tert-butylindan (ADBI), 6-acetyl-1,1,2,3,3,5-hexamethylindan (AHMI), 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta(g)-2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) were found in wastewater in the WWTP. DPMI, HHCB and AHTN were measured at 0.38-0.69, 11.5-146, 0.89-3.47 microg/l, respectively, in influents. Meanwhile 0.06-0.10 microg/l DPMI, 0.95-2.05 microg/l HHCB, 0.10-0.14 microg/l AHTN were detected in effluents, ADBI and AHMI were also detected in some primary waters and effluents. The results suggested that wastewater from cosmetic plants cause high loadings of polycyclic musks to this WWTP. Under the currently applied treatment technology, the removal efficiencies achieved were 61-75% for DPMI, 86-97% for HHCB and 87-96% for AHTN by transfer to sludge as the main removal route.     

Environmental risk assessment of musk ketone and musk xylene in the Netherlands in accordance with the EU-TGD

An environmental risk assessment has been carried out for musk ketone and musk xylene according to the EU Technical Guidance Document for Environmental Risk Assessment for New and Existing Substances [1]. Musk ketone and musk xylene are used in fragrances for cosmetics and household products. For the fragrance industry these are important fragrance ingredients because of their excellent substantivity as well as for their unique smell, which determines largely the odor of a product.

The initial environmental risk assessment is based on information provided by the fragrance industry as represented in the Netherlands by its association NEA, by the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) and data reported in the international open literature. The risk assessment includes an evaluation of the risks for aquatic organisms in surface water and sediment and for soil organisms in soil after application of sewage sludge. Secondary poisoning of fish-eating birds and mammals is considered as well. For each compartment the Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC) is compared to the Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC) to obtain PEC/PNEC ratios. Since monitoring data are available in water, sediment and fish, similar ratios are obtained with measured concentrations instead of the predicted ones.

For both substances, PEC/PNEC ratios are at or below 0.1 for organisms in the aquatic environment, including sediment organisms. PEC/PNEC ratios for fish-eating predators are 0.01. Ratios based on monitoring data are below 0.01 for all of these organisms. For soil organisms the PEC/PNEC ratio is 0.5 for musk ketone and 1.3 for musk xylene. Although in the Netherlands (as well as in some other European countries), sewage sludge presently finds no application as fertilizer on agricultural soil, the aim of environmental policy is to upgrade the sludge quality to enable future applications on agricultural and grassland. The reliability of the predicted soil concentrations can be greatly improved by obtaining experimental data on fate and behaviour of musk ketone and musk xylene in digested sludge and soil.

The risk assessment provides reassurance for the aquatic compartment while pointing the way for obtaining aditional data for the soil compartment.     

Occurrence and fate of polycyclic musks in wastewater treatment plants in Kentucky and Georgia, USA

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are a potential of source of polycyclic musks in the aquatic environment. In this study, contamination profiles and mass flow of polycyclic musks, 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[gamma]-2-benzopyran (HHCB), 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN), and HHCB-lactone (oxidation product of HHCB), in two WWTPs, one located in Kentucky (Plant A, rural area) and the other in Georgia (Plant B, urban), USA, were determined. HHCB, AHTN and HHCB-lactone were detected in the influent, effluent, and sludge samples analyzed. The concentrations in wastewater samples varied widely, from 10 to 7,030 ng/l, 13 to 5,400 ng/l, and 66 to 790 ng/l, for HHCB, AHTN, and HHCB-lactone, respectively. Sludge samples contained HHCB at <0.02-36 microg/g dry weight, AHTN at <0.02-7.2 microg/g dry weight, and HHCB-lactone at <0.05-17 microg/g dry weight. Based on the daily flow rates and mean concentrations of polycyclic musks, the estimated discharge of total polycyclic musks to the rivers was 21 g/day from Plant A and 31 g/day from Plant B. Mass balance analysis suggested that only 30% of HHCB and AHTN entering the plants was accounted for in the effluent and the sludge. Removal efficiencies of HHCB and AHTN in the two WWTPs ranged from 72% to 98%. In contrast, HHCB-lactone concentrations increased following the treatment. Concentrations of polycyclic musks in sludge were on the order of several parts per million. Incineration of sludge at one plant reduced the concentration of polycyclic musks.     

Occupational exposure to synthetic musks in barbershops,compared with the common exposure in the dormitories and households

Synthetic musks (SMs) have been widely used as fragrance ingredients in personal care and sanitary commodities. Due to their high volatility and particle-binding affinity, the indoor dust is a major reservoir of SMs, and dust ingestion could be an important exposure way to special populations, such as hairdressers. In spite of the known toxicity of SMs, there is no information regarding the occurrence of SMs in barbershop dusts and the exposure of hairdressers through indoor dust ingestion. In the present study, the levels of two nitro musks and five polycyclic musks were measured from indoor dust samples collected from barbershops, and some other indoor dust samples were also collected from dormitories, bathhouses and households for comparison. The concentrations of ∑SMs in barbershop dusts were 10–100 times higher than those from the other three indoor microenvironments. Polycyclic musks accounted for 89.4% of ∑SMs on average in all samples, of which two compounds, HHCB and AHTN jointly dominated 97.9% of polycyclic musks. The levels of HHCB and AHTN varied from 12.2 to 8.39 × 10⁵ and from 13.2 to 3.49 × 10⁵ ng g⁻¹, respectively. The daily intakes (DIs) of ∑SMs through house dust ingestion were estimated using the model of high dust ingestion and worst-case exposure (P95), and the corresponding exposure rates were 2791, 135 and 727 ng d⁻¹ for the hairdressers, general population and toddlers. SMs were also detected in blood samples collected from the hairdressers and normal adults (n = 50 and 10, respectively). There was no significant difference between these two groups. Despite the absence of higher SM concentrations in hairdresser’s blood, we should not overlook the potential occupational health risks due to their high SMs ingestion rate.