汽爆秸秆高温固态发酵沼气的研究

沼气液态深层发酵及秸秆的物理、化学和生物预处理方式存在效率低、污染重等问题。为了解决这些问题，对蒸汽爆破预处理方式以及固态发酵在玉米秸秆沼气化中的应用进行了研究。秸秆经过蒸汽爆破预处理后，在50℃的高温条件下进行固态发酵沼气，甲烷产量达到138.2 mL/g TS。通过单因素实验优化，确定最佳发酵条件为：固液比1∶7，初始pH值7.5，接种量35%，NH₄HCO₃添加量0.04 g/g干汽爆秸秆，纤维素酶用量30 IU/g干汽爆秸秆，发酵温度50℃。在上述实验条件下，汽爆秸秆的甲烷产量提高至153.0 mL/g TS，是未汽爆秸秆的2.9倍。发酵后秸秆纤维素和半纤维素的降解率分别为59.86%和67.22%。因此，蒸汽爆破预处理有助于提高秸秆的产气量和降解率。高温固态发酵不仅可以缩短发酵延迟期，提高产气效率，而且发酵结束后不会产生大量废液，对环境友好。     

褐铁矿与固体含量对牛粪秸秆混合厌氧干式发酵的影响

干式厌氧发酵是处理农业废弃物的有效途径之一,其中总固体(TS)含量和外源添加剂是影响有机质产甲烷过程的重要影响因素。以牛粪与水稻秸秆为例,研究了不同的褐铁矿添加量以及TS含量对牛粪秸秆混合厌氧干式发酵产甲烷过程的影响,并对沼渣特性进行表征。结果表明:固定TS含量25%时,添加1%褐铁矿(基于底物TS含量)显著促进产甲烷过程,产气量比对照组增加了21 mL·g~(-1)(以VS计);对照组(无褐铁矿)和添加1%褐铁矿时,纤维素降解均随TS含量升高而降低;TS含量40%时,添加1%褐铁矿对产甲烷过程具有抑制作用,甲烷产率相比于对照组(TS含量25%)降低了71%。可见只有当TS含量25%时,添加适量褐铁矿才能有效促进牛粪秸秆混合厌氧发酵产甲烷过程。研究可为优化农业废弃物甲烷化提供参考。     

底物浓度对玉米秸秆乙醇发酵及残渣甲烷发酵的影响

为研究底物浓度对玉米秸秆乙醇发酵过程中乙醇产率和乙醇发酵剩余残渣厌氧发酵产气特性的影响,在中温(37±0.2)℃条件下,利用实验室自制小型厌氧发酵装置,在底物浓度为2%、3%、4%和5%下开展周期为50 d的序批式厌氧发酵实验,探索不同底物浓度下玉米秸秆发酵乙醇产率和乙醇发酵剩余残渣厌氧发酵产气特性。结果表明:底物浓度对玉米秸秆乙醇发酵影响显著,当底物浓度为3%时,玉米秸秆厌氧发酵乙醇产量最大,达到39.04 g;底物浓度过低或过高均不适合后期厌氧发酵产甲烷的进行,当底物浓度为3%时,玉米秸秆乙醇发酵残渣表面纤维结构被破坏最明显,残渣厌氧发酵产甲烷实验最早在3 d出现产气峰值,挥发性固体单位甲烷产量为26.82 mL·g~(-1),并且累积产气量最高,挥发性固体单位累积甲烷产量达到270.01 mL·g~(-1),玉米秸秆乙醇发酵残渣还有较高的产气潜能;通过质量平衡分析得到,底物浓度为3%时,玉米秸秆生物转化过程中TS和VS去除率最高,分别为59.12%和79.07%。该研究可为玉米秸秆乙醇发酵工程提供参考。     

蓝藻与污泥混合厌氧发酵产沼气的初步研究

为了实现太湖蓝藻打捞后的快速处置，对厌氧颗粒污泥、消化污泥、剩余污泥与蓝藻混合厌氧发酵产沼气进行了研究。结果表明，蓝藻与污泥混合可以有效促进沼气发酵。在蓝藻与厌氧颗粒污泥物料比为6∶1时，产气效果最佳，沼气产率为73 mL/g VS，平均甲烷含量为69%，最大产气速率为138 mL/d，累计产甲烷量为50 mL CH₄/g干物质，分别是蓝藻与消化污泥、剩余污泥混合发酵时的1.5倍和2.3倍。厌氧颗粒污泥、消化污泥、剩余污泥与蓝藻混合，其VS降解率为11.40%～13.73 %，COD减少了27.97%～46.38%。厌氧发酵对蓝藻藻毒素的含量有较大影响，分别从356、366和244 μg/L降低到检测限5 μg/L 以下。     

接种比例和温度对餐厨废弃物厌氧发酵特性的影响

为提高餐厨废弃物厌氧发酵的甲烷转化率和挥发性固体降解率,分别在35℃和55℃条件下,采用批式发酵工艺,考察了接种物与底物的挥发性固体量之比对餐厨废弃物厌氧发酵挥发性固体甲烷产率、挥发性固体降解率、液相末端产物组成和pH值等发酵特性的影响。结果表明,温度和接种比例共同决定厌氧发酵停留阶段,在35℃发酵时接种比例大于50∶50的处理和55℃发酵时接种比例大于30∶70的处理以产甲烷发酵为主,其余以酸化发酵为主;游离氨抑制导致高温组的甲烷含量、挥发性固体甲烷产率和甲烷转化率均低于中温组;发生酸化处理组底物的挥发性固体降解率均低于40%,产甲烷发酵处理组挥发性固体降解率均高于80%。     

猪粪与玉米秸秆混合中温发酵产气效果

以猪粪及碱液预处理后的玉米秸秆为原料,在恒温35℃和料液总固体质量分数为5%的条件下,以实验室内培养的不产气厌氧活性污泥为接种物,研究猪粪与玉米秸秆不同配比(干物质比分别为1∶3、1∶2、1∶1、2∶1、3∶1和0∶1(单一猪粪))混合发酵对产气效果的影响。研究结果表明,在35℃条件下,猪粪与玉米秸秆以2∶1配比的累积产气量最大,为15 157 mL;其次是1∶1样品,累积产气量为15 088 mL。但甲烷产量最高为1∶1样品,56 d共产甲烷9 137 mL,甲烷气占总产气量的60.6%。通过对发酵过程中pH及COD的测定,证明经碱液预处理后的玉米秸秆能与猪粪混合稳定发酵,发酵前后厌氧消化液中COD的降解率可达50%以上。进一步研究分析得出,将玉米秸秆和猪粪按一定比例混合发酵不仅可以缩短发酵周期、提高产气速率,而且可以大幅提升原料的产气潜力。     

污泥与香蕉秸秆混合厌氧发酵特性

为提高污泥、香蕉秸秆厌氧发酵的甲烷产率,采用批式实验,研究污泥与香蕉秸秆厌氧发酵及其协同特性。实验结果表明:污泥和香蕉秸秆实验组分别会出现氨抑制、酸抑制现象,影响厌氧发酵的进行,一段时间后都可以自行解除抑制恢复产气。热碱污泥、碱浴秸秆实验组均可以解除抑制作用,甲烷产率较预处理前分别提高43%、176%。混合物质发酵实验组的甲烷产率较热碱污泥、碱浴秸秆实验组分别提高了110%、30%,较污泥和香蕉秸秆实验组分别提高了200%、259%。说明污泥和香蕉秸秆混合厌氧发酵,可以提高甲烷产率。     

添加NaOH对水生植物固体厌氧发酵产甲烷的作用

为了提高木质纤维素生物质的甲烷产率,固体厌氧发酵以及预处理技术得到了广泛应用。本研究以水生植物菹草为例,探讨了厌氧固体发酵同步碱处理提高甲烷产率的可行性。采用2种来源的微生物(厌氧污泥和牛粪),初始生物质浓度为20%TS(total solid,总固体重量),考察不同的NaOH添加量(基于反应体系总TS 0%、2.0%、3.5%和5.0%)对菹草厌氧发酵产气和固体水解效率的影响。结果表明,与对照实验组相比,初始NaOH加入量为3.5%时,接种污泥和牛粪的实验组中甲烷总产量分别为787.1 mL和1 165.4 mL,与对照实验组相比(619.1 mL和834.8 mL),分别提高了27.1%和39.6%,而且接种牛粪的实验组中单位挥发性固体(VS)产甲烷率最高,为186.5 mL/g。对发酵后的木质纤维素残渣组分进行分析,结果表明,NaOH有助于促进菹草中纤维素及半纤维素的分解,以及木质素结构的破坏,从而提高了菹草厌氧发酵产气产甲烷效率。     

蔬菜与餐厨垃圾厌氧发酵启动阶段微生物分析

为了研究厌氧发酵启动阶段微生物菌群结构、数量变化情况与沼气产量的关系，分别对蔬菜废弃物和餐厨垃圾单一物料发酵进行分析，并测定pH值、挥发性脂肪酸（VFA）、氧化还原电位。结果表明，餐厨垃圾比蔬菜废弃物的启动时间长，但产气持久。蔬菜废弃物中细菌达峰值的时间早于餐厨垃圾，说明蔬菜废弃物中的有机质更利于微生物降解利用。两种原料中的微生物群落结构变化一致，启动阶段初期好氧和兼性厌氧细菌属优势菌，其中产酸菌增殖速率高于氨化细菌，是启动阶段降解有机质的主要菌群。随后厌氧细菌快速增殖，13增殖速率由不足20％增长到近100％并保持稳定。厌氧纤维素降解菌在启动阶段增殖较慢，原料中纤维素降解在厌氧发酵后期。原料液VFA中丁酸含量最多，最高浓度4．7mg／mL以上，占有机酸总量总量的46％以上，厌氧发酵类型为丁酸发酵型。     

共接种瘤胃微生物和厌氧污泥的水稻秸秆中试厌氧消化系统性能评估

针对富含木质纤维素底物利用效率低的问题,通过在中试厌氧消化系统中共接种瘤胃微生物和厌氧污泥来改善水稻秸秆中木质纤维素的水解,采用逐步提升底物有机负荷(OLR)的方式,评估了接种后水稻秸秆的厌氧消化效率。结果表明,在反应体系底物有机负荷达到4.26 g·(L·d)-1(以VS计)时,系统表现出最佳的厌氧消化性能,此时沼气产率为528 mL·g-1 (以VS计),甲烷产率为287 mL·g-1,容积沼气生产强度达到2.20 L·(L·d)-1。在反应器有机负荷从1.05 g·(L·d)-1提升到4.26 g·(L·d)-1的运行过程中,系统的纤维素降解率稳定在(71±2)%,半纤维素降解率稳定在(92±4)%,木质素降解率稳定在(15±3)%。这种稳定性表明反应器的连续运行成功地形成了高效的木质纤维素降解体系,结果可为实际规模化应用提供参考。     

Patterns of volatile metabolites and nonvolatile trichothecenes produced by isolates of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stachybotrys,Fusarium, Trichoderma,Trichothecium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Memnoniella</Emphasis>

We reported previously that trichodiene, a volatile trichothecene derivative, was produced by a Stachybotrys isolate, also known to produce highly cytotoxic, non-volatile, macrocyclic trichothecenes (satrotoxins). We investigated the relationship between the production of trichodiene and various non-volatile trichothecenes for several molds. Volatile metabolites were concentrated by adsorption on Tenax TA and analyzed by GC/MS, while non-volatile metabolites were separated by HPLC, derivatized and analyzed by GC/MS. Stachybotrys chartarum isolates producing macrocyclic trichothecenes secreted significantly larger amounts of trichodiene and other sesquiterpenes than isolates which only produced simple trichothecenes. The amounts of secreted trichodiene were relatively small in all cases. With the exception of Memnoniella, which excreted small amounts of sesquiterpenes, the other isolates produced varying amounts of sesquiterpenes, including trichodiene, as well as simple tricothecenes, no detectable trichodiene, but large amounts of griseofulvin derivatives. In Stachybotrys there is apparently a correlation between trichodiene and macrocyclic trichothecene production. In the remaining isolates, there was no simple relationship between trichodiene and non-volatile trichothecene synthesis. Trichodiene is produced in larger amounts by Stachybotrys isolates, which also produce satratoxins, but it will be difficult to utilize this metabolite to detect toxic isolates in buildings due to the relatively small amounts excreted.     

Radionuclides and trace elements in fish collected upstream and downstream of Los Alamos national laboratory and the doses to humans from the consumption of muscle and bone

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine radionuclide and trace element concentrations in bottom‐feeding fish (catfish, carp, and suckers) collected from the confluences of some of the major canyons that cross Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) lands with the Rio Grande (RG) and the potential radiological doses from the ingestion of these fish. Samples of muscle and bone (and viscera in some cases) were analyzed for ³H, ⁹⁰Sr, ¹³⁷Cs, ^totU, ²³⁸Pu, ^239,240Pu, and ²⁴¹Am and Ag, As, Ba, Be, Cr, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, and Tl. Most radionuclides, with the exception of ⁹⁰Sr, in the muscle plus bone portions of fish collected from LANL canyons/RG were not significantly (p<0.05) higher from fish collected upstream (San Ildefonso/background) of LANL. Strontium‐90 in fish muscle plus bone tissue significantly (p<0.05) increases in concentration starting from Los Alamos Canyon, the most upstream confluence (fish contained 3.4E‐02 pCi g^‐1 [126E‐02 Bq kg^‐1]), to Frijoles Canyon, the most downstream confluence (fish contained 14E‐02 pCi g^‐1 [518E‐02 Bq kg^‐1]). The differences in ⁹⁰Sr concentrations in fish collected downstream and upstream (background) of LANL, however, were very small. Based on the average concentrations (±2SD) of radionuclides in fish tissue from the four LANL confluences, the committed effective dose equivalent from the ingestion of 46 lb (21 kg) (maximum ingestion rate per person per year) of fish muscle plus bone, after the subtraction of background, was 0.1 ± 0.1 mrem y^‐1 (1.0 ± 1.0 μSv y^‐1), and was far below the International Commission on Radiological Protection (all pathway) permissible dose limit of 100 mrem y^‐1 (1000 μSv y^‐1). Of the trace elements that were found above the limits of detection (Ba, Cu, and Hg) in fish muscle collected from the confluences of canyons that cross LANL and the RG, none were in significantly higher (p<0.05) concentrations than in muscle of fish collected from background locations.     

A History of Dry Cleaners and Sources of Solvent Releases from Dry Cleaning Equipment

Approximately 25, 000-35, 000 dry cleaning facilities currently operate in the U.S. The release of perchloroethylene and other solvents from these establishments represents a major source of soil and groundwater contamination. The manner in which dry cleaning solvents escape from dry cleaning plants is, for all practical purposes, identical for chlorinated and petroleum hydrocarbon solvents and is related to one of the following events: the catastrophic failure of a component of the dry cleaning system, the improper installation, operation or maintenance of the dry cleaning equipment or a combination of all of these causes. Acceptable customs, codes and regulations can also dictate what is authorized for operation of a dry cleaning facility in a particular community, geographic area during a particular time frame. Environmental litigation dealing with the origin of a solvent release from dry cleaners tends to focus on the design and manufacture of dry cleaning industry machines such as washers, washer extractors, tumblers, solvent filters, water separators, stills and spotting boards. A thorough analysis of the daily operations of dry cleaners often reveals that poor maintenance, failure to follow the manufacturer's instructions and the actions of the operator are the most likely causes of soil and groundwater pollution. In order to forensically evaluate the most probable origins of a solvent release and to examine issues regarding liability, a thorough understanding of the history of dry cleaning and a detailed analysis of the operation and maintenance of the dry cleaning equipment are necessary. The discovery of solvent plumes in the vicinity of dry cleaning plants may suggest that the solvent source is the dry cleaning plant; however, the presence of these plumes does not necessarily indicate that the dry cleaning equipment was defectively designed or manufactured. A thorough review of the type of equipment used over the life of the dry cleaning plant and verifiable solvent mileage records frequently indicates that operators of the plant have disposed of solvent and contaminated solids into the municipal sewer or on ground surfaces.     

Radionuclides in deer and elk from Los Alamos national laboratory and the doses to humans from the ingestion of muscle and bone

Abstract

This paper summarizes radionuclide concentrations (³H, ⁹⁰Sr, ¹³⁷Cs, ²³⁸Pu, ^239,240Pu, ²⁴¹Am, and ^totU) in muscle and bone tissue of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) collected from Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Los Alamos, New Mexico, lands from 1991 through 1998. Also, the committed effective dose equivalent (CEDE) and the risk of excess cancer fatalities (RECF) to people who ingest muscle and bone from deer and elk collected from LANL lands were estimated. Most radionuclide concentrations in muscle and bone from individual deer (n = 11) and elk (n = 22) collected from LANL lands were either at less than detectable quantities (where the analytical result was smaller than two counting uncertainties) and/or within upper (95%) level background (BG) concentrations. As a group, most radionuclides in muscle and bone of deer and elk from LANL lands were not significantly higher (p<0.10) than in similar tissues from deer (n = 3) and elk (n = 7) collected from BG locations. Also, elk that had been radio collared and tracked for two years and spent an average time of 50% on LANL lands were not significantly different in most radionuclides from road kill elk that have been collected as part of the environmental surveillance program. Overall, the upper (95%) level net CEDEs (the CEDE plus two sigma for each radioisotope minus background) at the most conservative ingestion rate (50 lbs of muscle and 13 lbs of bone) were as follows: deer muscle = 0.22 mrem y^‐1 (2.2 μSv y^‐1), deer bone = 3.8 mrem y^‐1 (38 μSv y^‐1), elk muscle = 0.12 mrem y^‐1 (1.2 μSv y^‐1), and elk bone = 1.7 mrem y^‐1 (17 μSv y^‐1). All CEDEs were far below the International Commission on Radiological Protection guideline of 100 mrem y^‐1 (1000 μSv y^‐1), and the highest muscle plus bone net CEDE corresponded to a RECF of 2E‐06, which is far below the Environmental Protection Agency upper level guideline of 1E‐04.     

Leaching of seven pesticides currently used in cotton crop in Mato Grosso State—Brazil

This study aimed to evaluate the leaching of pesticides and the applicability of the Attenuation Factor (AF) Model to predict their leaching. The leaching of carbofuran, carbendazim, diuron, metolachlor, α and β endosulfan and chlorpyrifos was studied in an Oxisol using a field experiment lysimeter located in Dom Aquino – Mato Grosso. The samples of percolated water were collected by rain event and analyzed. Chemical and physical soil attributes were determined before pesticide application to the plots. The results showed that carbofuran was the pesticide that presented a higher leaching rate in the studied soil, so was the one representing the highest contamination potential. From the total carbofuran applied in the soil surface, around 6 % leached below 50 cm. The other pesticides showed lower mobility in the studied soil. The calculated values to AF were 7.06E-12 (carbendazim), 5.08E-03 (carbofuran), 3.12E-17 (diuron), 6.66E-345 (α-endosulfan), 1.47E-162 (β-endosulfan), 1.50E-06 (metolachlor), 3.51E-155 (chlorpyrifos). AF Model was useful to classify the pesticides' potential for contamination; however, that model underestimated pesticide leaching.     

Endosulfan in China 2—emissions and residues

Background, aim, and scope  Endosulfan is one of the organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and also a candidate to be included in a group of new persistent organic pollutants (UNEP 2007). The first national endosulfan usage inventories in China with 1/4° longitude by 1/6° latitude resolution has been reported in an accompanying paper. In the second part of the paper, we compiled the gridded historical emissions and soil residues of endosulfan in China from the usage inventories. Based on the residue/emission data, gridded concentrations of endosulfan in Chinese soil and air have been calculated. These inventories will provide valuable data for the further study of endosulfan. Methods  Emission and residue of endosulfan were calculated from endosulfan usage by using a simplified gridded pesticide emission and residue model—SGPERM, which is an integrated modeling system combining mathematical model, database management system, and geographic information system. By using the emission and residue inventories, annual air and soil concentrations of endosulfan in each cell were determined. Results and discussion  Historical gridded emission and residue inventories of α- and β-endosulfan in agricultural soil in China with 1/4° longitude by 1/6° latitude resolution have been created. Total emissions were around 10,800 t, with α-endosulfan at 7,400 t and β-endosulfan at 3,400 t from 1994 to 2004. The highest residues were 140 t for α-endosulfan and 390 t for β-endosulfan, and the lowest residues were 0.7 t for α-endosulfan and 170 t for β-endosulfan in 2004 in Chinese agricultural soil where endosulfan was applied. Based on the emission and residue inventories, concentrations of α- and β-endosulfan in Chinese air and agricultural surface soil were also calculated for each grid cell. We have estimated annual averaged air concentrations and the annual minimum and maximum soil concentrations across China. The real concentrations will be different from season to season. Although our model does not consider the transport of the insecticide in the atmosphere, which could be very important in some areas during some special time, the estimated concentrations of endosulfan in Chinese air and soil derived from the endosulfan emission and residue inventories are in general consistent with the published monitoring data. Conclusions  To our knowledge, this work is the first inventory of this kind for endosulfan published on a national scale. Concentrations of the chemical in Chinese air and agricultural surface soil were calculated for each grid cell. Results show that the estimated concentrations of endosulfan in Chinese air and soil agree reasonably well with the monitoring data in general. Recommendations and perspectives  The gridded endosulfan emission/residue inventories and also the air and soil concentration inventories created in this study will be updated upon availability of new information, including usage and monitoring data. The establishment of these inventories for the OCP is important for both scientific communities and policy makers.     

Impact of spiked concentrations of Cd,Pb, As and Zn in growth medium on elemental uptake of Nasturtium officinale (Watercress)

This study is aimed at investigating the impact of water quality on the uptake and distribution of three non-essential and toxic elements, namely, As, Cd and Pb in the watercress plant to assess for metal toxicity. The plant was hydroponically cultivated under greenhouse conditions, with the growth medium being spiked with varying concentrations of As, Cd and Pb. Plants that were harvested weekly for elemental analysis showed physiological and morphological symptoms of toxicity on exposure to high concentrations of Cd and Pb. Plants exposed to high concentrations of As did not survive and the threshold for As uptake in watercress was established at 5 ppm. Translocation factors were low in all cases as the toxic elements accumulated more in the roots of the plant than the edible leaves. The impact of Zn on the uptake of toxic elements was also evaluated and Zn was found to have an antagonistic effect on uptake of both Cd and Pb with no notable effect on uptake of As. The findings indicate that phytotoxicity or death of the watercress plant would prevent it from being a route of human exposure to high concentrations of As, Cd and Pb in the environment.     

Butyltin compounds in sediment and fish from the Polish Coast of the Baltic Sea

Concentrations of mono- (MBT), di- (DBT), and tri-(TBT) butyltin compounds were measured in eggs, liver, and muscle of nine species of fish from four regions of the Baltic Sea - the Firth of Vistula, the Gulf of Gdańsk, Puck Bay, and the mouth of the Vistula River. The overall concentration ranges among all the fish sampled from the four sites were: < 7 to 79 ng/g for MBT, 6 to 1100 ng/g for DBT, 7 to 3600 ng/g for TBT, and 16 to 4800 ng/g for total BTs, on a wet wt basis. The highest concentration of total BTs was found in herring liver from the Firth of Vistula (4800 ng/g, wet wt) and in roach muscle from Puck Bay (3300 ng/g, wet wt), while the least concentration was found in burbot eggs and liver from the Vistula River (39 and 32 ng/g, wet wt, respectively). TBT was the major form of BTs present in most samples analyzed. Sediment samples collected from shipyards in the Gulf of Gdańsk contained butyltin concentrations ranging from 1.2 to 46 μg/g (dry wt) for MBT, 2.0 to 42 μg/g for DBT, and 2.6 to 40 μg/g for TBT. As with the fish, the majority of the BTs in sediment were present as TBT, which suggested recent exposure of the aquatic environment of the region to TBT.     

Malathion-induced sublethal toxicity on the hematology of cricket frog (Fejervarya limnocharis)

The effect of malathion [diethyl(dimethoxythiophosphorylthio)succinate] at sublethal concentration (0.006 ppm) on hematological parameters of the cricket frog (Fejervarya limnocharis) was studied for 24 hrs to 240 hrs of exposure and remarkable hematological alterations were observed. The study on hematological parameters revealed a highly significant decrease (P < 0.01) in the total erythrocytes count in malathion-exposed animals from 24 hours to 96 hrs of exposure as compared to control. Significant decreases (P < 0.01) of hemoglobin and packed cell volume were also observed from 48 hrs to 240 hrs. A significant increase (P < 0.01) in leucocytes count was noted throughout the exposure period. Elevated numbers of lymphocytes and eosinophils as found in the present study revealed lymphocytosis as well as eosinophilia, suggesting that this was a result of direct stimulation of the immunological defense due to the presence of a toxic substance or may be associated with tissue damage. The cytomorphological and cytopathological study of erythrocytes and leucocytes in malathion-exposed frogs at 0.006 ppm concentration revealed various cytotoxic effects at different exposure times. It was noted that the size and the shape of the erythrocytes were subjected to variation in different blood disorders.