Comparative morphology and secretion chemistry of the scoli in caterpillars of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Hyalophora cecropia</Emphasis>

The morphology of the variously coloured scoli (bristle-bearing structures on the integument, producing an exocrine secretion) on caterpillars of Hyalophora cecropia and the secondary chemistry of the discharged secretions have been investigated for the first time and compared. According to our scanning electron microscopic study, the red/orange, yellow and blue coloured groups of these glands differ morphologically. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analyses showed that the patterns of secondary compounds in the respective glandular secretions are also different. Furthermore, the secretion of the penultimate larval instar is chemically distinct from that of the last instar, as are both secretions from the respective haemolymph. The results favour the idea that the differences in scoli colour, morphology and chemistry could affect various predator species differently.Electronic Supplementary Material  Supplementary material is available for this article if you access the article at . A link in the frame on the left on that page takes you directly to the supplementary material.     

Increased egg estradiol concentration feminizes digit ratios of male pheasants (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phasianus colchicus</Emphasis>)

The length ratio between individual digits differs between males and females in humans, other mammals, lizards, and one bird species. Sexual dimorphism in digit ratios and variation among individuals of the same sex may depend on differential exposure to androgens and estrogens during embryonic life. Organizational effects of sex hormones could cause the observed correlations between digit ratios and diverse phenotypic traits in humans. However, no study has investigated experimentally the effect of prenatal estrogens on digit ratios. We analyzed the effect of estradiol injection in ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) eggs on digit ratios. Males from control eggs had higher ratios between the second or third and the fourth digit of the right foot compared to females. Estradiol-treated eggs produced males with lower (feminized) right foot second to fourth digit ratio. Thus, we provided the first experimental evidence that prenatal exposure to physiologically high estrogen levels affects bird digit ratios.     

Largest bird from the Early Cretaceous and its implications for the earliest avian ecological diversification

With only one known exception, early Cretaceous birds were smaller than their closest theropod dinosaur relatives. Here we report on a new bird from the Early Cretaceous feathered-dinosaur-bearing continental deposits of Liaoning, northeast China, which is not only larger than Archaeopteryx but is nearly twice as large as the basal dromaeosaur Microraptor. The new taxon, Sapeornis chaoyangensis gen. et sp. nov., has a more basal phylogenetic position than all other birds except for Archaeopteryx. Its exceptionally long forelimbs, well-developed deltoid crest of the humerus, proximally fused metacarpals, relatively short hindlimbs and short pygostyle indicate powerful soaring capability and further suggest that by the Early Cretaceous ecological diversification of early birds was greater than previously assumed. Electronic supplementary material to this paper can be obtained by using the Springer LINK server located at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00114-001-0276-9.     

The origin and early evolution of birds: discoveries,disputes, and perspectives from fossil evidence

The study of the origin and early evolution of birds has never produced as much excitement and public attention as in the past decade. Well preserved and abundant new fossils of birds and dinosaurs have provided unprecedented new evidence on the dinosaurian origin of birds, the arboreal origin of avian flight, and the origin of feathers prior to flapping flight. The Mesozoic avian assemblage mainly comprises two major lineages: the prevalent extinct group Enantiornithes, and the Ornithurae, which gave rise to all modern birds, as well as several more basal taxa. Cretaceous birds radiated into various paleoecological niches that included fish- and seed-eating. Significant size and morphological differences and variation in flight capabilities, ranging from gliding to powerful flight among early birds, highlight the diversification of birds in the Early Cretaceous. There is little evidence, however, to support a Mesozoic origin of modern avian groups. Controversy and debate, nevertheless, surround many of these findings, and more details are needed to give a better appreciation of the significance of these new discoveries.     

Nest site selection and induced response in a dominant arboreal ant species

It is well known that arboreal ants, both territorially dominant species and plant ants (e.g., species associated with myrmecophytes or plants housing them in hollow structures), protect their host trees from defoliators. Nevertheless, the presence of an induced defense, suggested by the fact that the workers discovering a leaf wound recruit nestmates, is only known for plant ants. Based on the results from a field study, we show here (1) that colonies of Azteca chartifex, a territorially dominant, neotropical arboreal ant species, mostly selected Goupia glabra (Goupiaceae) trees in which to build their principal carton nests and (2) that plant signals induced workers to recruit nestmates, which patrol the leaves, likely providing the plant with a biotic defense. Furthermore, the number of recruited workers was clearly higher on G. glabra, their most frequently selected host tree species, than on other tree species. These results show that contrary to what was previously believed, induced responses are also found in territorially dominant arboreal ants and so are not limited to the specific associations between myrmecophytes and plant ants.     

Behavioral and faunal implications of Early Cretaceous deinonychosaur trackways from China

Deinonychosaurian theropods, the dinosaurian sister group of birds, are characterized by a large raptorial claw borne on a highly modified second digit that was thought to be held in a retracted position during locomotion. In this study, we present new trackway evidence for two coeval deinonychosaurian taxa from the Early Cretaceous of Shandong, China that indicate a hitherto unrecognized body size diversity for this period and continent. These fossil tracks confirm diversity and locomotory patterns implied by phylogeny and biogeography, but not yet manifested in the body fossil record. Multiple parallel and closely spaced trackways generated by the larger track maker provide the best evidence yet discovered for gregarious behavior in deinonychosaurian theropods.     

The evolutionary continuum of limb function from early theropods to birds

The bipedal stance and gait of theropod dinosaurs evolved gradually along the lineage leading to birds and at some point(s), flight evolved. How and when did these changes occur? We review the evidence from neontology and palaeontology, including pectoral and pelvic limb functional morphology, fossil footprints/trackways and biomechanical models and simulations. We emphasise that many false dichotomies or categories have been applied to theropod form and function, and sometimes, these impede research progress. For example, dichotomisation of locomotor function into ‘non-avian’ and ‘avian’ modes is only a conceptual crutch; the evidence supports a continuous transition. Simplification of pelvic limb function into cursorial/non-cursorial morphologies or flexed/columnar poses has outlived its utility. For the pectoral limbs, even the classic predatory strike vs. flight wing-stroke distinction and separation of theropods into non-flying and flying—or terrestrial and arboreal—categories may be missing important subtleties. Distinguishing locomotor function between taxa, even with quantitative approaches, will always be fraught with ambiguity, making it difficult to find real differences if that ambiguity is properly acknowledged. There must be an ‘interpretive asymptote’ for reconstructing dinosaur limb function that available methods and evidence cannot overcome. We may be close to that limit, but how far can it be stretched with improved methods and evidence, if at all? The way forward is a combination of techniques that emphasises integration of neontological and palaeontological evidence and quantitative assessment of limb function cautiously applied with validated techniques and sensitivity analysis of unknown variables.     

Honeybee combs: construction through a liquid equilibrium process?

Geometrical investigations of honeycombs and speculations on how honeybees measure and construct the hexagons and rhombi of their cells are centuries old. Here we show that honeybees neither have to measure nor construct the highly regular structures of a honeycomb, and that the observed pattern of combs can be parsimoniously explained by wax flowing in liquid equilibrium. The structure of the combs of honeybees results from wax as a thermoplastic building medium, which softens and hardens as a result of increasing and decreasing temperatures. It flows among an array of transient, close-packed cylinders which are actually the self-heated honeybees themselves. The three apparent rhomboids forming the base of each cell do not exist but arise as optical artefacts from looking through semi-transparent combs.Electronic Supplementary Material  Supplementary material is available for this article if you access the article at . A link in the frame on the left on that page takes you directly to the supplementary material.     

When attempts at robbing prey turn fatal

Because group-hunting arboreal ants spread-eagle insect prey for a long time before retrieving them, these prey can be coveted by predatory flying insects. Yet, attempting to rob these prey is risky if the ant species is also an effective predator. Here, we show that trying to rob prey from Azteca andreae workers is a fatal error as 268 out of 276 potential cleptobionts (97.1?%) were captured in turn. The ant workers hunt in a group and use the “Velcro?” principle to cling firmly to the leaves of their host tree, permitting them to capture very large prey. Exceptions were one social wasp, plus some Trigona spp. workers and flies that landed directly on the prey and were able to take off immediately when attacked. We conclude that in this situation, previously captured prey attract potential cleptobionts that are captured in turn in most of the cases.     

冻融对污水河道沉积物特性及脱水性能的影响

为了降低污水河道治理过程中污染沉积物的含水率以减少其对环境的二次污染,对污水河道沉积物在自然条件下和人为条件下进行冻融实验研究,通过冻融前后沉积物比阻抗、含水率、颗粒分布及渗出液中污染物含量等实验说明冻融对污染沉积物脱水性能及其特性有影响.研究表明,冻融过程使沉积物的比表面积变小,体均粒径变大,泥水明显分离,含水率从冻前83%～85%降到融后的50%～60%;大量间隙水、毛细结合水和表面粘附水游离出来,提高了沉积物的脱水性能;比阻值由(1.2～4.1)×10⁹s²/g降为(3.8～5.2)×10⁷s²/g;同时渗出液的SS含量由1 000～1 200mg/kg降到340～380 mg/kg、氨氮含量由150～170 mg/kg降到100～120 mg/kg、BOD含量由300～310 mg/kg降到50～60 mg/kg,但渗出液中油类物质含量由1～2mg/kg提高到11～12 mg/kg,即如果沉积物不是被油类物质污染,冻融可使渗出液污染程度小于冻前沉积物的渗出液.     

三峡工程对库区鸟类资源的影响评价

经1984—1986年的研究,在掌握三峡库区鸟类资源现状及特点的基础上对国内已建水库鸟类的变动情况进行考察,了解影响鸟类的各种因素,研究这些生态因子对鸟类群落的影响,采用统计学方法量化三峡工程对鸟类资源的影响程度,作出定性、定量的预断评价。 研究结果表明,兴建三峡水库必将引起适应原有生态环境的鸟类群落在组成、生态分布等方面的变化,一方面使珍稀鸟类、经济鸟类受到破坏,使已趋贫乏的森林鸟类更加贫乏;另一方面水禽资源将会增长。但总的影响是弊大于利。建坝150m和180m对不同群落的影响各异。高坝对森林和农田鸟类不利影响值均大于低坝30％;对水域鸟类的有利影响值,高坝为低坝的两倍。     

城市化对上海市五角场地区鸟类群落的影响

从时间及空间2个尺度上分析了城市化对上海市五角场地区鸟类群落的影响。结果表明，城市化过程中五角场地区的鸟类急剧减少，种类数从128种降至46种，科的数目也减少近半，其原因主要是城市化导致鸟类栖息地丧失和栖息环境的改变。农田水网生境的消失直接导致游禽在该区域的全部消失，80%游禽和农田村居鸟类也随之迁出该区域。现存的鸟类群落组成以林区鸟为主，其次是灌丛鸟，主要分布在公园，学校等有大片绿地的区域，其组成特点与现有的园林系统植物群落结构直接相关。城郊自然保护地段仍孕育了大量的鸟类，但由于现有的园林绿化系统结构单一，且彼此分离，呈片断化，难以承担向城内输送物种的任务。一个具有复层混交立体且空间上连续的园林绿地系统是维持城区鸟类多亲性的物质基础。     

全国水环境功能区编码研究

编码是将大量零散图表数据方便整合和有效管理的关键和基础.在对各省、自治区、直辖市区划图表数据系统整合过程中,分析了欧美等国外现有河流编码及国内相关部门,如水利、测绘等河流编码的优劣.鉴于原水功能区编码的不适宜性并参考国际河流编码的经验,提出了一套比较适合整合水环境功能区划GIS数据的全新14位数字字母混合编码.该编码由6位数字型行政区划代码(GB2260-1995)、国家1∶250 000地形数据库采用的6位数字字母混合河流名称代码及2位数字顺序码的三段码组合而成,可用其唯一识别每一功能区并链接区划图表数据.但由于该编码拘于1∶250 000电子地图河流图层数据的线型(polyline)和多边型(polygon)数据结构,而非路径网络(network)结构,决定了这种基于河流名称代码的水环境功能区编码还不能反映出功能区的长度(或长度比例)等基本属性,未来研究可借鉴美国先进经验,以使之更趋完善.      

Summer dormancy in edible dormice (Glis glis) without energetic constraints

Average longevity in free-living edible dormice (Glis glis) can reach 9 years, which is extremely high for a small rodent. This remarkable life span has been related to a peculiar life history strategy and the rarity of reproductive bouts in these seed eaters. Most females (96%) reproduce only once or twice in their lifetime, predominantly during years of mast seeding of, e.g., beech, but entire populations can skip reproduction in years of low seed availability. Surprisingly, in non-reproductive years, large fractions of populations apparently vanished and were never captured above ground. Therefore, we determined the duration of above-ground activity, and body temperature profiles in a subset of animals, of dormice under semi-natural conditions in outdoor enclosures. We found that non-reproductive dormice returned to dormancy in underground burrows throughout summer after active seasons as short as <2 weeks. Thus, animals spent up to >10 months per year in dormancy. This exceeds dormancy duration of any other mammal under natural conditions. Summer dormancy was not caused by energy constraints, as it occurred in animals in good condition, fed ad libitum and without climatic stress. We suggest that almost year-round torpor has evolved as a strategy to escape birds of prey, the major predators of this arboreal mammal. This unique predator-avoidance strategy clearly helps in explaining the unusually high longevity of dormice.     

Nesting habits shape feeding preferences and predatory behavior in an ant genus

We tested if nesting habits influence ant feeding preferences and predatory behavior in the monophyletic genus Pseudomyrmex (Pseudomyrmecinae) which comprises terrestrial and arboreal species, and, among the latter, plant-ants which are obligate inhabitants of myrmecophytes (i.e., plants sheltering so-called plant-ants in hollow structures). A cafeteria experiment revealed that the diet of ground-nesting Pseudomyrmex consists mostly of prey and that of arboreal species consists mostly of sugary substances, whereas the plant-ants discarded all the food we provided. Workers forage solitarily, detecting prey from a distance thanks to their hypertrophied eyes. Approach is followed by antennal contact, seizure, and the manipulation of the prey to sting it under its thorax (next to the ventral nerve cord). Arboreal species were not more efficient at capturing prey than were ground-nesting species. A large worker size favors prey capture. Workers from ground- and arboreal-nesting species show several uncommon behavioral traits, each known in different ant genera from different subfamilies: leaping abilities, the use of surface tension strengths to transport liquids, short-range recruitment followed by conflicts between nestmates, the consumption of the prey’s hemolymph, and the retrieval of entire prey or pieces of prey after having cut it up. Yet, we never noted group ambushing. We also confirmed that Pseudomyrmex plant-ants live in a kind of food autarky as they feed only on rewards produced by their host myrmecophyte, or on honeydew produced by the hemipterans they attend and possibly on the fungi they cultivate.     

Evidence for contact sex recognition pheromone of the Asian longhorned beetle,<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Anoplophora glabripennis</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Field observations of the Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) mating behavior in China suggested that a female-produced contact pheromone was almost certainly involved in sex recognition. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of A. glabripennis adults' whole body cuticular extracts indicates that a series of long-chain hydrocarbons comprise the cuticular waxes of both sexes. Although for the most part the GC profiles are similar for the two sexes, five monounsaturated compounds were consistently more abundant in samples from females than in those from males. These compounds were identified as (Z)-9-tricosene, (Z)-9-pentacosene, (Z)-7-pentacosene, (Z)-9-heptacosene, and (Z)-7-heptacosene in the approximate ratio of 1:2:2:8:1, respectively. Antennal and palpi contact to a polypropylene micro-centrifuge tube coated with a synthetic mixture of the five compounds stimulated copulatory behavior in males.Electronic Supplementary Material  Supplementary material is available for this article if you access the article at . A link in the frame on the left on that page takes you directly to the supplementary material.     

风力发电场对鸟类迁徙的影响分析与对策

风能资源的地域分布与鸟类迁徙通道重叠,表现为沿海及岛屿、内陆湖泊、水库、沼泽及其它湿地,既是风能资源丰富地区,也是鸟类迁徙的主要通道和停歇地;风能资源的季节分布与鸟类迁徙季节重合。导致风力发电场的兴建对鸟类迁徙带来直接影响。所以,在发展风力发电的同时,必须注意对鸟类的保护。     

Was endothermy in amniotes induced by an early stop in growth during ontogeny?

Endothermy and its evolution are still an unresolved issue. Here, we present a model which transforms an ectothermic amniote (ancestor) into a derived amniote (descendant) showing many characteristics seen in extant endothermic birds and mammals. Consistent with the fossil record within the ancestral lineages of birds and mammals, the model assumes that mutations in genes which get active during ontogeny and affect body growth resulted in a reduced asymptotic body size and an early growth stop of the descendant. We show that such a postulated early growth stop in the descendant simultaneously increases the growth rate and metabolic rate, and also changes six life history traits (offspring mass, annual clutch/litter mass, number of offspring per year, age and mass at which sexual maturity is reached, age at which the individual is fully grown) of the descendant compared to a similar-sized ancestor. All these changes coincide with known differences between recent ectothermic and endothermic amniotes. We also elaborate many other differences and similarities in biological characteristics supporting the early growth stop. An early stop in growth during ontogeny thus could have played a key role in the evolution of endothermy within the reptilia and therapsids. It generated variability in characteristics of ancestral ectotherms, which was subject to natural selection in the past and resulted in many adaptations linked to endothermy in today’s birds and mammals.     

Molekulare Aspekte der Höhenatmung von Vögeln

Respiration of birds at high altitude and the structural adaptation of avian hemoglobins are studied. Applying the method of the "minimal biological distance", hemoglobins of closely related species were sequenced and compared with each other. Physiological measurements and sequence data show that adaptation to hypoxic stress can be interpreted as exchange of one amino acid. The structural aspects of the genetical data are discussed on the basis of the atomic model of hemoglobin. High-altitude respiration is not a general characteristic of birds: the adaptation to high altitudes is the result of a specific mutation, thus distinguishing a species from its closest relatives in the lowland.     

Carotenoids,immune response and the expression of sexual ornaments in male greenfinches (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Carduelis chloris</Emphasis>)

Allocation trade-offs of carotenoids between their use in the immune system and production of sexual ornaments have been suggested as a proximate mechanism maintaining honesty of sexual signals. To test this idea, we experimentally examined whether carotenoid availability in the diet was related to variation in antibody response to novel antigens in male greenfinches (Carduelis chloris aurantiiventris), a species with extensive carotenoid-dependent plumage colouration. We also measured the cost of mounting a humoral response in terms of circulating carotenoids. Finally, we examined the relationship between plumage colour, immune response and circulating carotenoids. We found that males with carotenoid-supplemented diets showed stronger antibody response than non-supplemented birds. We also found that activation of the immune system significantly reduced circulating carotenoids (24.9% lower in immune-challenged birds than in control birds). Finally, intensity (chroma) of ventral plumage colouration of males, a character directly related to concentration of total carotenoids in feathers, was negatively correlated with the immune response and circulating carotenoids in winter. These results support the idea that carotenoids are a limiting resource and that males trade ornamental colouration against immune response.