Zn2+对藻类生物膜生长生理特性影响研究

利用自制的简易生物膜反应器,在3500 lx的光照和14∶10的光暗比下,以Zn2+为模式重金属,利用模拟氮磷废水驯化培养鞘藻（Oedogonium sp.）使其形成藻类生物膜,研究不同Zn2+浓度对鞘藻形成的藻类生物膜生长及生理特性的影响。综合考虑藻类对Zn2+的耐受范围,选定模拟氮磷废水中Zn2+5个质量浓度水平：1.0、3.0、5.0、10.0、20.0 mg·L-1,定时从反应器中取一定量的藻类生物膜,测定以下生理生化指标：叶绿素、超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、硝酸盐还原酶（NR）、蛋白质及胞外多聚糖,并以藻细胞干质量为基准。研究结果表明：藻类生物膜对Zn2+有一定的耐受性,且质量浓度为5 mg·L-1的Zn2+对藻类生物膜的生长有明显的促进作用,但当质量浓度增大至20 mg·L-1时,藻体大量死亡,藻类生物膜生长明显受到抑制。Zn2+质量浓度为3 mg·L-1的实验组对鞘藻的叶绿素含量有明显的促进作用,而当Zn2+质量浓度为20 mg·L-1时,鞘藻内的叶绿素含量明显减少。不同Zn2+质量浓度对鞘藻的生理生化指标也表现出不同的作用,其中SOD含量随着Zn2+质量浓度的升高明显受到抑制;10 mg·L-1的Zn2+对NR有明显的促进作用;各实验组蛋白质含量在实验初期均有增加,但随之又均有降低;在实验前2 d,20 mg·L-1的Zn2+对胞外多聚糖有明显的促进作用,其含量为对照的1.4倍。以上现象均表明藻类生物膜在重金属的作用下其生长代谢会发生一定的变化,使藻类生物膜能够在一定重金属浓度范围内较好地生长,为藻类生物膜的进一步利用奠定理论基础。     

AB工艺减少污泥重金属的效果

在AB工艺中,利用A段活性吸附去除重金属从而降低B段污泥中重金属含量,使其达到农用标准（GB4284-84酸性土壤控制标准）。利用小型污水处理实验场,模拟研究了AB工艺A段中重金属的去除情况,对AB运行控制参数进行优化探讨,以使A段能有效去除大部分重金属,并尽可能降低有毒有害污泥产量。结果表明：溶解氧质量浓度控制在0.5mg·L-1,污泥质量浓度调节为约500mg·L-1时,Cu2＋去除率可达87.6%,Zn2＋的去除率为78.7%,Ni2＋去除率为51%。当污泥质量浓度在1000～1500mg·L-1时,A段处理后污泥沉降性能好转,对重金属离子的去除有较好的效果,且不过多截留污水中的有机物。且B段剩余污泥中的Cu2＋、Zn2＋、Ni2＋含量都基本达到酸性土壤污泥农用控制标准。因此,适当控制AB工艺相关参数条件,利用A段活性污泥去除大部分重金属,降低B段产泥中重金属含量,达到农业控制标准是可行的,污泥经处理后进行土地资源化利用可成为我国污泥处置与利用的一种有效途径。     

微量金属对硫酸盐有机废水厌氧处理颗粒污泥活性的影响

采用厌氧反应装置,接种取自UASB反应器的硫酸盐有机废水厌氧处理颗粒污泥,以人工配制的含硫酸盐有机废水(蔗糖提供有机物)为原水,分别添加不同质量浓度的微量金属(Fe2+、Co2+、Ni2+),通过间歇试验,研究了不同质量浓度的微量金属(Fe2+、Co2+、Ni2+)条件下,厌氧反应装置中COD和硫酸盐的去除率及产甲烷情况。试验结果表明,在Fe2+质量浓度0~12 mg·L-1、Co2+质量浓度0~0.5 mg·L-1、Ni2+质量浓度0~0.6 mg·L-1范围内,厌氧颗粒污泥的COD去除率和产甲烷速率分别随Fe2+、Co2+、Ni2+浓度的增加而增高。在Fe2+质量浓度0~12 mg·L-1范围内,厌氧颗粒污泥对SO42-去除率随Fe2+浓度的增加略有增高,但在Co2+质量浓度0~0.5 mg·L-1、Ni2+质量浓度0~2.0 mg·L-1范围内,厌氧颗粒污泥的SO42-去除率分别随Co2+和Ni2+浓度的增加而降低。因此,在一定浓度范围内,Fe2+的投加能同时激活MPB和SRB,Co2+和Ni2+的投加能激活MPB但对SRB活性产生抑制作用,为硫酸盐有机废水厌氧处理提供一定的理论指导。     

Mo6+对活性污泥系统反硝化性能的影响

采用对比实验的方法,在不同初始硝酸盐氮和COD质量浓度的条件下,对人工模拟的活性污泥系统投加不同质量浓度的Mo6 ,以此考察Mo6 对活性污泥系统反硝化性能的影响。结果发现,Mo6 的质量浓度小于5mg?L-1以下时能够促进硝酸盐氮的去除,质量浓度为1mg?L-1时促进效果最好。Mo6 的质量浓度在4mg?L-1以下时,可以使COD去除效率增加,质量浓度为2mg?L-1时有最佳促进作用。Mo6 的质量浓度小于1g?L-1时可提高反硝化活性污泥的TTC-脱氢酶活性,过高质量浓度则表现出抑制作用。综合Mo6 的对硝酸盐氮和COD去除的影响规律以及对活性污泥TTC-脱氢酶活性的影响,认为Mo6 在质量浓度为1mg?L-1时对反硝化的促进作用最强。     

纳米水稳型C60（nC60）促进Zn2+和Cr6+ 在大型溞体内的吸收、抗氧化性和急性毒性

富勒烯(C60)作为一种被广泛使用的纳米工程材料,其环境行为和所造成的毒效应越来越引起人们的关注,特别是其与重金属的联合毒性.文章选取模式生物大型溞研究纳米水稳型富勒烯(nC60)与Zn+和Cr6+的联合毒性.按EPA 2024急性毒性试验结果,nC60对大型溞48 h-LC50为0.47 mg·L-1,最大无观察效应浓度(NOEC)为0.10 mg·L-1.NOEC浓度选定为nC60亚急性试验浓度,用于联合毒性试验.nC60增强了Zn2+和Cr6+对大型溞的毒性,Zn2和Cr6+对大型溞48 h-LC50分别由2.33mg·L-1和0.40mg·L-1降低为1.52 mg·L-1和033 mg·L-1;nC60增加了大型溞对Zn2+和Cr6+的摄入,暴露1440 min后体内Zn2+和Cr6+累积量分别由6.52 μg·g-1湿重和1.52 μg·g-1湿重增加到9.98 μg ·g-1湿重和3.01 μg·g-1湿重;nC60和Zn2+和Cr6+联合作用于大型潘后,大型溞SOD酶活性均呈现出增强的诱导现象,联合作用时诱导作用强于两种物质单独作用.此研究表明:在亚急性浓度下,nC60增强了Zn2+和Cr6+对大型溞的毒性,提高了大型潘体内Zn2+和Cr6+的积累,并提高大型溞体内自由基活性.     

Cr~(6+)对活性污泥活性及有机物去除速率的影响

通过检测活性污泥系统的电子传递活性以及COD的去除速率,研究了Cr~(6+)对污泥活性以及有机物降解速率的影响,并探讨了两者之间的关系.研究结果表明:5 mg·L~(-1)的Cr~(6+)即会对系统产生明显影响,Cr~(6+)对污泥活性和COD去除率的抑制作用随其质量浓度的增大而增强;当Cr~(6+)质量浓度达到25 mg·L~(-1)时,污泥的INT和TTC-电子传递(TTC-ETS)活性以及有机物降解速率都表现为大幅的下降,下降比例分别为46.98%、54.18%以及64.47%.Cr~(6+)抑制污泥TTC-ETS活性的IC_(50)小于抑制INT-ETS活性的IC_(50),表明TTC-ETS活性反映Cr~(6+)毒性作用的灵敏性大于INT-ETS活性.此外,INT和TTC-ETS活性与有机物降解速率之间也均存在显著的正相关性,说明两者都是表征Cr~(6+)对有机物去除速率影响的灵敏参数.     

Zn2+对黄瓜发芽期生理特性的影响

锌是植物必需的营养元素,同时也是一种常见的环境有毒重金属元素.以黄瓜(Cucumis sativus L.)为试验材料,设置不同Zn2 处理(0、25、50、100、200、300 mg·L-1),利用发芽和出苗试验,研究了Zn2 对黄瓜发芽期生理特性的影响.结果显示,低处理(0～25 mg·L-1)对黄瓜种子萌发和幼苗生长有促进作用,当为25 mg·L-1时最有利于黄瓜种子萌发和幼苗生长,其种子发芽率、发芽势、发芽指数、活力指数、根长、下胚轴长、下胚轴粗度和相对含水量均高于对照及其他浓度处理;幼苗相对电导率、丙二醛含量、可溶性糖含量、游离脯氨酸含量、SOD活性及POD活性均在此浓度得到最低.但从50 mg·L-1开始,随着增加,黄瓜种子萌发的各项指标开始下降,幼苗生长的各项生理指标开始上升,对黄瓜种子发芽和幼苗生长产生抑制作用,并在300 mg·L-1时抑制作用得到最大.该研究为进一步研究农业生态整治与安全高效利用提供理论基础.     

Al~0-O_2体系降解活性黄3RS溶液

酸性条件下,采用Al0-O2体系对活性黄3RS染料溶液进行降解,考察了活性黄3RS的初始浓度,p H、Al0的浓度、温度、Fe2+浓度等因素对其降解率的影响.结果表明,在p H=2和Al0浓度为1 g·L-1时,对50 mg·L-1活性黄3RS的降解率最高,反应150 min时最高可获得92%的降解率;降解后其COD值由126.35 mg·L-1降至49.44 mg·L-1;温度升高,活性黄3RS的降解率提高,其表观反应活化能为108.262 k J·mol-1;动力学分析表明该过程为一级反应,反应速率常数kobs=1.2×10-2s-1;当向体系中加入Fe2+时,其降解速率加快.     

SBR/混凝协同工艺处理城市污水的效果

将无机混凝剂直接投加到SBR反应器中,组成SBR/混凝协同工艺对城市污水进行处理研究.考察了混凝剂的投加量、混凝剂的种类、投药时间等因素对污水处理效果的影响,探讨了新型复合混凝剂(PISC)对污泥膨胀的抑制作用.实验结果表明,与普通的序列间歇式活性污泥法(SBR)相比,当采用新型复合混凝剂与SBR组成的协同工艺处理城市污水时,在适宜的条件下,不仅污水中的CODCr、TP和sS的去除率可分别提高13.5%、47.6%和11.5%,水力停留时间缩短1/3左右,而且该协同工艺可明显抑制污泥膨胀,并改善高膨胀活性污泥的沉降浓缩性能.     

利用LIVE/DEAD Baclight染色测定活性污泥中的活菌水平

以LIVE/DEAD Baclight染色法测定活性污泥中的活菌水平,采用荧光染色剂SYTO9和碘化丙啶(PI)对活性污泥进行染色,并利用荧光分光光度计测量绿色荧光(Fg, 波长500-510 nm)光强来表征活性污泥中活菌水平.该法直接对稀释后的污泥悬浊液进行测量,简化了测量步骤.当污泥浓度小于100 mg·l-1时,每毫升样品需投加染色剂25 μl;污泥浓度稀释到50 mg·l-1,其惰性颗粒物对测量产生的影响在7 %以下;超声波分散的最佳条件是:超声时间2 min,功率40 W.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles

Summary Undamaged plants emit low levels of green leaf volatiles (GLVs), while caterpillar-damaged and artificially damaged plants emit relatively higher levels of certain GLVs. Female braconid parasitoids,Microplitis croceipes, oriented to both damaged plants and to individual GLVs in no-choice tests in a wind tunnel, but seldom oriented to undamaged plants. Female ichneumonid parasitoids,Netelia heroica, also oriented to individual GLVs in a wind tunnel. Males of both wasp species failed to orient to the GLVs. These data show that leaf-feeding caterpillars can cause the release of GLVs, and that parasitic wasps can respond to these odors by flying upwind (chemoanemotactic response), which brings the wasps to their caterpillar hosts. This supports the hypothesis that plants communicate with members of the third trophic level,i.e., plants under herbivore attack emit chemical signals that guide natural enemies of herbivores to sites of plant damage. In this interaction, the GLVs serve as tritrophic plant-to-parasitoid synomones. That parasitoids from two different wasp families oriented to GLVs suggests that the response may be widespread among the Hymenoptera.Mention of a commercial or proprietary product does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.