五里河水体甲基汞污染及沉积物中甲基汞释放速度的初步研究

河流水体的汞污染,主要来源于工业生产中所排放的含汞废水。环境监测报告表明,生产氯碱的化工厂的含汞废水排入河流后,会使水体造成严重的汞污染。五里河就是这样一条被汞严重污染的河流,它是构成锦州湾海域汞污染的主要污染源。 从汞的化学形态来看,五里河水体的汞污染,可分为无机汞污染和有机汞(主要是甲基汞)污染。而处于水生生态环境中(主要是沉积物中)的无机汞,可以转化为甲基汞。由于甲基汞污染比无机汞污染对环境和人类具有更大的危害性,所以五里河水体中甲基汞     

沈阳细河流域土壤和作物中汞的潜在生态危害及健康风险评价

为研究沈阳市细河流域土壤汞(Hg)的污染和健康风险状况,对该区土壤和农作物中Hg的含量和分布进行了调查和分析。采用Hakanson潜在生态风险危害指数法评价土壤Hg的污染状况,并利用健康风险评价模型对Hg通过不同暴露途径所引起的健康风险作出评价。研究结果表明,细河流域土壤Hg的潜在生态危害相对较大,其中43.21%样品处于中等危害程度,26.62%属于强及以上风险级别。健康风险评价模型计算表明,人体经食物摄取是土壤Hg暴露的主要途径,Hg日平均暴露剂量依次为食物摄取呼吸暴露皮肤暴露;成人和儿童的非致癌危害指数分别为0.315和0.713,均低于风险阈值1,表明Hg不会对人体造成健康危害。     

海洋环境汞甲基化/去甲基化研究进展

汞（Hg）是一种在大气中具有较长停留时间并能进行长距离传输的全球性污染物.甲基汞（MeHg）具有毒性强、易富集、可随食物链放大的特点，是引起环境风险的主要汞形态.通过各种来源排放到海洋环境中的无机汞在沉积物和水柱中均可甲基化为MeHg，原位甲基化和去甲基化是控制海洋环境中甲基汞水平的关键过程.虽然目前已有综述总结了环境中汞甲基化/去甲基化，但对海洋生态系统中汞甲基化/去甲基化过程涉及相对较少.本文在总结海洋汞甲基化/去甲基化过程速率、途径和热点区域基础上，详细讨论了海洋光化学、非光化学以及微生物3种汞甲基化/去甲基化途径机制，并对未来研究方向进行了展望.在现有研究基础上，未来应在不同汞甲基化/去甲基化途径贡献估算、实际海洋环境汞甲基化/去甲基化基因/微生物作用验证、环境因素对海洋汞甲基化/去甲基化影响方面开展更深入研究.海洋汞甲基化/去甲基化的研究可为深入理解海洋汞的环境行为与风险和发展有效的汞污染风险防控技术提供科学依据和数据支撑.     

典型汞污染地区食物汞含量及人体汞暴露健康风险

系统采集典型汞污染地区(铅锌冶炼、金矿冶炼和燃煤电厂)食物样品(大米、蔬菜和鱼肉) 409个,测定其总汞含量以评估当地居民食物摄入汞暴露的健康风险。结果显示:铅锌冶炼地区大米总汞含量的几何均值为5.99μg·kg~(-1)(3.02～30.7μg·kg~(-1)),仅有1个样品总汞含量超过我国大米汞限量标准(20μg·kg~(-1)),蔬菜和鱼肉总汞含量分别为0.646～5.44μg·kg~(-1)和1.80～26.4μg·kg~(-1),均未超过我国食品汞限量标准;金矿冶炼地区大米总汞含量的几何均值为4.46μg·kg~(-1)(3.13～8.67μg·kg~(-1)),蔬菜和鱼肉总汞含量分别为0.760～7.83μg·kg~(-1)和1.59～21.9μg·kg~(-1),所有食物均未超过我国食品汞限量标准;燃煤电厂地区大米总汞含量的几何均值为3.63μg·kg~(-1)(1.05～11.4μg·kg~(-1)),蔬菜和鱼肉总汞含量分别为1.12～3.78μg·kg~(-1)和2.24～12.3μg·kg~(-1),所有食物均未超过我国食品汞限量标准。铅锌冶炼、金矿冶炼和燃煤电厂3个地区居民通过食用食物(大米、鱼肉和蔬菜途径)总汞摄入量的均值分别为0.068、0.038和0.031μg·d~(-1)·kg~(-1),均未超出联合国粮农组织和世界卫生组织食品添加剂联合专家委员会(JECFA)推荐的人体安全总汞摄入量0.71μg·d~(-1)·kg~(-1);表明3个研究地区居民汞暴露的风险较低。大米汞摄入量占3个地区居民食物总汞摄入量的比例分别为77.2%、70.8%和71.4%,食用大米是当地居民汞暴露的主要途径。     

沉积物中汞的甲基化研究进展

汞是环境中存在的一种重要污染物质,其毒性与之化学形态密切相关。环境中的汞主要以无机汞形态存在,然而无机汞可以通过甲基化作用转化为毒性更强的甲基汞,从而给受到暴露的生物及人类带来更高的健康风险。沉积物是汞在水生环境系统中的主要分布相,也是无机汞甲基化过程发生的主要场所。沉积物中汞的甲基化过程受到生物种类、汞的生物可利用性等生物因素及温度、含硫化合物、有机质、氧化还原条件等环境理化性质的影响。本文对汞在沉积物中甲基化过程的作用机制及其影响因素的研究现状及最新进展进行了总结,并对未来更深入的研究进行了展望。     

北京市场常见水产品中总汞、甲基汞分布特征及食用风险

以甲苯二次萃取-直接测汞的方法对北京市场常见水产品中的甲基汞进行分析测定,并评价了食用人群的暴露风险。分析样品包括大黄鱼（Pseudosciaena crocea）、虾（Penaeus chinensis）等9种常见海产品以及武昌鱼（Megalobrama amblycephala Yih）、鳙鱼（Aristichthys nobilis）2种淡水海产品。测定结果表明：海产品中总汞和甲基汞质量分数要远高于淡水鱼中的总汞和甲基汞质量分数,总汞绝大多数是以甲基汞的形式存在,所占比例从74.7%到96.0%不等;对其中3种鱼类的鱼体甲基汞分布研究表明：肌肉中的甲基汞质量分数最高,肝脏中次之,鱼鳃中质量分数最低。根据我国水产品甲基汞标准,本研究中水产品甲基汞质量分数均低于国家标准,但根据世界卫生组织（WHO）和美国环保署EPA颁布的甲基汞摄入量参考值,食用银鳕鱼等甲基汞质量分数相对较高的水产品仍然存在一定的风险,应注意限量。     

加拿大最大程度降低汞的环境和健康风险的进展

出于对人类健康的担忧,加拿大采取手段限制人为汞排放.汞是一种在环境中普遍存在的天然元素.接触途径很复杂.科学文献、政策和法规都涉及到环境中的汞水平,不过所涉及的都是甲基汞(一种神经毒素).把汞颗粒和活性汞甲基化合成有机甲基汞会产生毒性作用.加拿大政府已经颁布了一套政策法规以期最大程度地降低甲基汞和其他有毒化学品对健康和环境的危险性,并与加拿大各省政府和地区政府进行合作,积极参与双边、区域和国际活动.     

加拿大最大程度降低汞的环境和健康风险的进展

出于对人类健康的担忧,加拿大采取手段限制人为汞排放.汞是一种在环境中普遍存在的天然元素.接触途径很复杂.科学文献、政策和法规都涉及到环境中的汞水平,不过所涉及的都是甲基汞(一种神经毒素).把汞颗粒和活性汞甲基化合成有机甲基汞会产生毒性作用.加拿大政府已经颁布了一套政策法规以期最大程度地降低甲基汞和其他有毒化学品对健康和环境的危险性,并与加拿大各省政府和地区政府进行合作,积极参与双边、区域和国际活动.     

加拿大最大程度降低汞的环境和健康风险的进展

出于对人类健康的担忧,加拿大采取手段限制人为汞排放.汞是一种在环境中普遍存在的天然元素.接触途径很复杂.科学文献、政策和法规都涉及到环境中的汞水平,不过所涉及的都是甲基汞(一种神经毒素).把汞颗粒和活性汞甲基化合成有机甲基汞会产生毒性作用.加拿大政府已经颁布了一套政策法规以期最大程度地降低甲基汞和其他有毒化学品对健康和环境的危险性,并与加拿大各省政府和地区政府进行合作,积极参与双边、区域和国际活动.     

安徽省典型地区人群头发汞含量及其影响因素分析

汞及其化合物毒性大,挥发性强,在环境中易于迁移,危害人体健康.人发中汞的含量是反映汞的环境暴露对人体的影响的优良指标.本研究利用氢化物发生-原子吸收分光光度法对安徽省合肥、淮南、安庆等8个典型地区人群的131个头发样品中总汞含量进行测定,并用SPSS软件对数据结果进行了统计分析.结果表明,安徽省人群发汞含量为0.480±0.896μg·g~(-1),与国内外部分地区相比,处于较低水平,人体受汞暴露的风险较低;六安地区人群发汞含量(0.068±0.054μg·g~(-1))明显低于其他7个地区;男、女发汞含量分别为0.581±1.083μg·g-1和0.317±0.416μg·g~(-1),在0.05的显著性水平上无显著性差异,发汞含量与性别相关性较小;样本中30—50岁的人群发汞含量相对其他年龄段偏高,表明发汞含量与年龄具有一定相关关系;染发样本发汞含量明显低于非染发样本,不能准确反映人体的汞暴露程度.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Use of stochastic patch occupancy models in the California red-legged frog for Bayesian inference regarding past events and future persistence

Assessing causes of population decline is critically important to management of threatened species. Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs) are popular tools for examining spatial and temporal dynamics of populations when presence–absence data in multiple habitat patches are available. We developed a Bayesian Markov chain method that extends existing SPOMs by focusing on past environmental changes that may have altered occupancy patterns prior to the beginning of data collection. Using occupancy data from 3 creeks, we applied the method to assess 2 hypothesized causes of population decline—in situ die-off and residual impact of past source population loss—in the California red-legged frog. Despite having no data for the 20–30 years between the hypothetical event leading to population decline and the first data collected, we were able to discriminate among hypotheses, finding evidence that in situ die-off increased in 2 of the creeks. Although the creeks had comparable numbers of occupied segments, owing to different extinction–colonization dynamics, our model predicted an 8-fold difference in persistence probabilities of their populations to 2030. Adding a source population led to a greater predicted persistence probability than did decreasing the in situ die-off, emphasizing that reversing the deleterious impacts of a disturbance may not be the most efficient management strategy. We expect our method will be useful for studying dynamics and evaluating management strategies of many species.