生物多样性保护及其研究进展（综述）

由于人口的增长和人类经济活动的加剧,致使生物多样性受到了严重的威胁,引起国际社会的普遍关注．生物多样性是生物及其与环境形成的生态复合体以及与此相关的各种生态过程的总和,具有十分重要的价值,是人类生存的物质基础．各国政府和有关的国际组织积极投入到保护生物多样性的全球行动中．为了促进保护工作,国内外都开展了相关的研究工作．综观该领域的研究现状,可以看出以下７个方面已成为当前生物多样性研究的热点：①生物多样性的调查、编目及信息系统的建立;②人类活动对生物多样性的影响;③生物多样性的生态系统功能;④生物多样性的长期动态监测;⑤物种濒危机制及保护对策的研究;⑥栽培植物与家养动物及其野生近缘的遗传多样性研究;⑦生物多样性保护技术与对策．结合我国的具体情况,建议优先考虑以下４个方面的研究：①生物多样性的调查、编目与动态监测;②物种濒危机制及保护对策的研究;③生物多样性的生态系统功能与生态系统管理;④栽培植物与家养动物及其野生近缘的遗传多样性研究．     

我国生物多样性及其保护战略

本文系统地论述了生物多样性的含义,在生态系统、物种及遗传基因多样性三个水平上阐述了生物多样性对人类生存和发展的意义;介绍了我国生物多样性的现状,总结了多年来我国在保护生物多样性方面的努力和取得的成就;提出适合我国国情的生物多样性保护战略,即加强生物多样性的宣传、管理、科研和科研队伍建设,制订生物多样性保护行动计划,开辟国际合作。     

农业生态系统中生物多样性的功能--兼论其保护途径与今后研究方向

重点论述了农业生态系统中生物多样性的功能 ,其功能主要表现在害虫控制、土壤侵蚀防治、退化环境恢复、消除污染和促进养分循环等方面。探讨了农业生态系统中生物多样性的保护途径及今后应开展的研究重点。     

农业生态系统中生物多样性的功能—兼论其保护途径与今后研究方向

重点论述了农业生态系统中生物多样性的功能，其功能主要表现在害虫控制、土壤侵蚀防治、退化环境恢复、消除污染和促进养分循环等方面。探讨了农业生态系统中生物多样性的保护途径及今后开展的研究重点。     

中国生物多样性保护立法现状与需求

生物多样性保护依赖于健全的国际立法和国家立法。中国已颁布一系列有关生物多样性保护的法律和条例。这些法规的实施，使生物多样性保护工作取得重大进展，但还存在许多不足和空白。本文概述了中国在生物多样性保护方面的立法现状，在此基础上，针对存在问题，并根据《生物多样性公约》要求，从生态系统、物种和遗传多样性保护３个层次上阐明需要完善和加强法规建设的若干方面和需求。     

中国生物多样性保护立法现状与需求

生物多样性保护依赖于健全的国际立法和国家立法。中国已颁布一系列有关生物多样性保护的法律和条例。这些法规的实施，使生物多样性保护工作取得重大进展，但还存在许多不足和空白。本文概述了中国在生物多样性保护方面的立法现状，在此基础上，针对存在问题，并根据《生物多样性公约》要求，从生态系统、物种和遗传多样性保护３个层次上阐明需要完善和加强法规建设的若干方面和要求。     

山东省自然保护区建设及生物多样性保护问题

论述了山东省生物多样性现状及受危原因，讨论了自然保护区的建设对生物多样性保护的作用和存在的不足，对山东省自然保护区的发展及生物多样性保护对策进行了初步探讨。     

山东省自然保护区建设及生物多样性保护问题

论述了山东省生物多样性现状及受危原因，讨论了自然保护区的建设对生物多样性保护的作用和存在的不足，对山东省自然保护区的发展及生物多样性保护对策进行了初步探讨。     

气候变化对生物多样性的影响:脆弱性和适应

气候变化对生物多样性影响及其适应直接关系着未来生物多样性的保护.气候变化对生物多样性影响、生物多样性在气候变化影响下的脆弱性、生物多样性适应气候变化方面进行了总结分析,对存在的问题进行了讨论,对今后研究提出了一些建议.过去的气候变化已使物种物候、分布和丰富度等改变,使一些物种灭绝、部分有害生物危害强度和频率增加,使一些生物入侵范围扩大、生态系统结构与功能改变等.未来的气候变化仍将使物种物候和行为、分布和丰富度等改变,使一些物种灭绝、使有害生物爆发频率和强度增加,并将可能使生态系统结构与功能发生改变等.生物多样性适应气候变化包括了自然适应和人为适应两个方面,自然适应体现在物种适应性进化、迁移、生态系统稳定性和弹性等,人为适应体现在种质基因保存、物种异地保护、自然保护区规划设计、生态系统适应性管理、生态恢复和气候灾害防御等.目前,生物多样性对气候变化影响的脆弱性、生物多样性自然适应和人为适应气候变化方面的研究都还不系统深入,需要加强生物多样性自然适应和人为适应气候变化方面的研究.     

全国生物多样性观测网络的建设与主要成效

正生物多样性观测是在一定区域内对生物多样性的定期测量[1-4]。它通过获取生态系统的格局与质量、物种组成与分布以及环境要素等方面数据,掌握生物多样性变化趋势及其驱动因素,协助保护决策和成效评估,是生物多样性保护的基础性工作和重要手段[1-4]。开展生物多样性观测既是国家重大战略,也是履行国际义务的重要行动。2010年9月,国务院批准发布的《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2011—2030年)》将建立生物多样性观测网络列为优先行动之一。     

Effects of human demand on conservation planning for biodiversity and ecosystem services

Safeguarding ecosystem services and biodiversity is critical to achieving sustainable development. To date, ecosystem services quantification has focused on the biophysical supply of services with less emphasis on human beneficiaries (i.e., demand). Only when both occur do ecosystems benefit people, but demand may shift ecosystem service priorities toward human-dominated landscapes that support less biodiversity. We quantified how accounting for demand affects the efficiency of conservation in capturing both human benefits and biodiversity by comparing conservation priorities identified with and without accounting for demand. We mapped supply and benefit for 3 ecosystem services (flood mitigation, crop pollination, and nature-based recreation) by adapting existing ecosystem service models to include and exclude factors representing human demand. We then identified conservation priorities for each with the conservation planning program Marxan. Particularly for flood mitigation and crop pollination, supply served as a poor proxy for benefit because demand changed the spatial distribution of ecosystem service provision. Including demand when jointly targeting biodiversity and ecosystem service increased the efficiency of conservation efforts targeting ecosystem services without reducing biodiversity outcomes. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating demand when quantifying ecosystem services for conservation planning.     

Safeguarding Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in the Little Karoo,South Africa

Abstract: Global declines in biodiversity and the widespread degradation of ecosystem services have led to urgent calls to safeguard both. Responses to this urgency include calls to integrate the needs of ecosystem services and biodiversity into the design of conservation interventions. The benefits of such integration are purported to include improvements in the justification and resources available for these interventions. Nevertheless, additional costs and potential trade‐offs remain poorly understood in the design of interventions that seek to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services. We sought to investigate the synergies and trade‐offs in safeguarding ecosystem services and biodiversity in South Africa's Little Karoo. We used data on three ecosystem services—carbon storage, water recharge, and fodder provision—and data on biodiversity to examine several conservation planning scenarios. First, we investigated the amount of each ecosystem service captured incidentally by a conservation plan to meet targets for biodiversity only while minimizing opportunity costs. We then examined the costs of adding targets for ecosystem services into this conservation plan. Finally, we explored trade‐offs between biodiversity and ecosystem service targets at a fixed cost. At least 30% of each ecosystem service was captured incidentally when all of biodiversity targets were met. By including data on ecosystem services, we increased the amount of services captured by at least 20% for all three services without additional costs. When biodiversity targets were reduced by 8%, an extra 40% of fodder provision and water recharge were obtained and 58% of carbon could be captured for the same cost. The opportunity cost (in terms of forgone production) of safeguarding 100% of the biodiversity targets was about US$500 million. Our results showed that with a small decrease in biodiversity target achievement, substantial gains for the conservation of ecosystem services can be achieved within our biodiversity priority areas for no extra cost.     

An integrated ecosystem service assessment in an artificial desert oasis of northwestern China

Spatially explicit integrated assessment of ecosystem services is a new and important research field in landscape ecology. The objective of this paper was to develop an integrated process-based modeling method to simulate changes in multiple ecosystem services in 2000–2009 at pixel and regional scales in the Zhangye oasis of northwestern China. Six ecosystem service indicators were selected and quantified using process-based models, including net primary production (NPP), grain production, net oxygen production (NOP), carbon sequestration (CS), water conservation, and soil conservation. Analytical results were as follows: (1) At the oasis scale, NPP, NOP, CS, water conservation, and soil conservation decreased from 2000 to 2009, whereas grain production increased. (2) At the pixel scale, the spatial changes in NPP were similar to those in NOP and CS, but changes in grain production showed the opposite pattern. Water conservation and soil conservation showed somewhat unintuitive spatial patterns. (3) The impact of land-use forms on ecosystem services showed that grazing and township construction both had negative impacts on all services, but that nature conservation and wetland development had positive impacts on all services. This research showed that the integrated modeling can be proposed as an environmental decision-making tool in similar case studies.     

Hydroelectricity production and forest conservation in watersheds.

Globally, particularly in developing countries, hydroelectricity production and economic growth occur together with ecosystem/biodiversity conservation in watersheds. There is a relationship between hydroelectricity production and ecosystem/biodiversity conservation in watersheds, centering on the supply and demand for ecosystem services of river water flow regulation and sediment retention. Here we show that, in the upper reach of the Yangtze River, hydroelectricity production of Three Gorges Hydroelectric Power Plant can form a beneficial relationship with forest conservation through the paid use (compensating residents for their cooperation in the conservation) of ecosystem services launched by the National Natural Forest Protection Project. This interaction can provide additional incentives to encourage local communities' long-term cooperation in conserving and protecting the restored forest ecosystems. Hydroelectricity plants also obtain benefits from this interaction. The industrialization of ecosystem services supply provides an operational framework for this beneficial interaction. Sustainable forest ecosystem conservation will require developing new institutions and policies and must involve local communities in the conservation and protection of their local forests.     

鼎湖山南亚热带森林生态系统服务价值动态

以鼎湖山3个南亚热带森林演替典型阶段生态系统为对象,采用我国《森林生态系统服务功能评估规范》（LY/T 1721—2008）标准化计算公式与服务价格,量化揭示南亚热带森林生态系统演替过程中生态系统服务功能价值动态。结果表明：随着演替的进行,南亚热带森林生态系统服务功能总价值不断增大;但各分项服务功能价值则表现出不同的动态规律与变化幅度,从而使得森林生态系统服务结构呈现非线性演化特征。在南亚热带森林生态系统演替的早期阶段,生态系统服务价值的最大组分是涵养水源的功能价值,而中、后期则是保育土壤。人工林营造可以有效增强区域生态系统的水源涵养能力,而保育演替中、后期森林则对于大气CO2收和土壤保育而言尤为重要。     

Ten ways remote sensing can contribute to conservation

In an effort to increase conservation effectiveness through the use of Earth observation technologies, a group of remote sensing scientists affiliated with government and academic institutions and conservation organizations identified 10 questions in conservation for which the potential to be answered would be greatly increased by use of remotely sensed data and analyses of those data. Our goals were to increase conservation practitioners’ use of remote sensing to support their work, increase collaboration between the conservation science and remote sensing communities, identify and develop new and innovative uses of remote sensing for advancing conservation science, provide guidance to space agencies on how future satellite missions can support conservation science, and generate support from the public and private sector in the use of remote sensing data to address the 10 conservation questions. We identified a broad initial list of questions on the basis of an email chain‐referral survey. We then used a workshop‐based iterative and collaborative approach to whittle the list down to these final questions (which represent 10 major themes in conservation): How can global Earth observation data be used to model species distributions and abundances? How can remote sensing improve the understanding of animal movements? How can remotely sensed ecosystem variables be used to understand, monitor, and predict ecosystem response and resilience to multiple stressors? How can remote sensing be used to monitor the effects of climate on ecosystems? How can near real‐time ecosystem monitoring catalyze threat reduction, governance and regulation compliance, and resource management decisions? How can remote sensing inform configuration of protected area networks at spatial extents relevant to populations of target species and ecosystem services? How can remote sensing‐derived products be used to value and monitor changes in ecosystem services? How can remote sensing be used to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of conservation efforts? How does the expansion and intensification of agriculture and aquaculture alter ecosystems and the services they provide? How can remote sensing be used to determine the degree to which ecosystems are being disturbed or degraded and the effects of these changes on species and ecosystem functions?     

National contributions to global ecosystem values

Current conservation templates prioritize biogeographic regions with high intensity ecosystem values, such as exceptional species richness or threat. Intensity-based targets are an important consideration in global efforts, but they do not capture all available opportunities to conserve ecosystem values, including those that accrue in low intensity over large areas. We assess six globally-significant ecosystem values—intact wilderness, freshwater availability, productive marine environments, breeding habitat for migratory wildlife, soil carbon storage, and latitudinal potential for range shift in the face of climate change—to highlight opportunities for high-impact broadly-distributed contributions to global conservation. Nations can serve as a cohesive block of policy that can profoundly influence conservation outcomes. Contributions to global ecosystem values that exceed what is predicted by a nation's area alone, can give rise to countries with the capacity to act as ‘conservation superpowers’, such as Canada and Russia. For these conservation superpowers, a relatively small number of national policies can have environmental repercussions for the rest of the world.     

Global Habitat Protection: Limitations of Development Interventions and a Role for Conservation Performance Payments

Abstract: Conservation biologists, policy makers, and citizens have identified the protection of native ecosystems in low-income nations as a global social objective. Among the more popular initiatives toward this objective is the use of development interventions in the peripheral areas of endangered ecosystems. Such interventions indirectly provide desirable ecosystem services by redirecting labor and capital away from activities that degrade ecosystems (e.g., agricultural intensification) and by encouraging commercial activities that supply ecosystem services as joint products (e.g., ecotourism). I examined the economics of such interventions and the available empirical evidence and concluded that development interventions are hindered by (1) the indirect and ambiguous conservation incentives that they generate, (2) the complexity of their implementation, and (3) their lack of conformity with the temporal and spatial dimensions of ecosystem conservation objectives. In contrast, paying individuals or communities directly for conservation performance may be a simpler and more effective approach. In recent years there has been widespread experimentation with contracting approaches to ecosystem conservation. Conservation contracting can (1) reduce the set of critical parameters that practitioners must affect to achieve conservation goals, (2) permit more precise targeting and more rapid adaptation over time, and (3) strengthen the links between individual well-being, individual actions, and habitat conservation, thus creating a local stake in ecosystem protection. In situations where performance payments are unlikely to work, indirect development interventions are also unlikely to work. Thus, despite the potential barriers to developing a system of conservation contracts in low-income nations, my analysis suggests that performance payments have the potential to improve the way in which ecosystems are conserved in these nations.     

Rare Species and Ecosystem Functioning

Abstract:  The role of diversity in the maintenance of ecosystems has been studied widely in the past decade. By correlating richness and diversity with basic ecosystem processes, these investigations lend support to the hypothesis that species diversity significantly influences ecosystem functioning and, in turn, provide support for the conservation of biodiversity. Nonetheless, the majority of these investigations demonstrate that conservation of a relatively small number of generally dominant species is sufficient to maintain most processes. Indeed, there is remarkably little evidence to support the contention that less common species, those likely of highest conservation concern, are important in the maintenance of ecosystem functioning. Here we summarize studies, most employing alternative methodological strategies, wherein less common and rare species are demonstrated to make significant contributions to ecosystem functioning. Evidence exists among studies of keystone species, aggregate effects of less common species, and species turnover. Our findings suggest that (1) less common species can make significant ecosystem contributions; (2) further investigation into the effects of rare and less common species on ecosystem maintenance is sorely needed; (3) further investigation should embrace a variety of approaches; and (4) until further research is conducted a prudent conservation approach is warranted wherein the contribution of less common species to ecosystem functioning is assumed.     

重要生态功能区典型生态服务及其评估指标体系的构建

科学评估重要生态功能区的生态服务是管理者制定相关政策的基础,对促进重要生态功能区维护区域生态安全、支撑经济社会可持续发展具有重要意义。依据生态服务的空间转移特性,探索提出了重要生态功能区典型生态服务的概念与内涵,并在此基础上综合运用频度分析法、专家咨询法和层次分析法,构建了重要生态功能区水源涵养、土壤保持、防风固沙、生物多样性保护和洪水调蓄等典型生态服务的评估指标体系。结果表明：在指标体系中,影响水源涵养服务的主要是土壤质地和降水量;影响土壤保持服务的主要是植被覆盖度和丰富度指数;影响防风固沙服务的主要是植被覆盖度和大风时速;影响生物多样性服务的主要是植被景观多样性指数;影响洪水调蓄服务的主要是湿地容积和降水量。土壤、植被、地形和气候等生态因子是重要生态功能区典型生态服务产生与发挥的重要基础。