Traditional agriculture in transition: examining the impacts of agricultural modernization on smallholder farming in Ghana under the new Green Revolution

Following the renewed effort at achieving a new green revolution for Africa, emphasis has been placed on modernizing smallholder agriculture through the deployment of improved inputs especially mechanized technologies. In Ghana, the government has in the last decade emphasized the provision of subsidized mechanized ploughing services to farmers alongside a rapidly growing private sector tractor service market. While mechanized technology adoption rates have increased rapidly, the deployment of these technologies has been without critical analysis of the impacts on production patterns and local agrarian systems. This paper examines the distributional impacts of agriculture mechanization on cropping patterns and farm sizes of smallholder farmers in northern Ghana using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques, and semi-structured interviews with smallholder farmers (n=60). Specifically, comparative analysis of the field sizes and cropping patterns of participant farmers prior to and after the adoption of mechanized technologies was conducted. In-depth interviews were used to contextualize the experiences of smallholder farmers toward understanding how mechanization may be impacting traditional agriculture. Our findings reveal a mechanization paradox in which farm sizes are expanding, while cropping patterns are shifting away from traditional staple crops (pearl millet and sorghum bicolor) to market-oriented crops (maize, rice and groundnuts). This transition we argue, has adverse implications on the cultural dimension of food security, the organization of social life, and climate change adaptation. We recommend a retooling of the current agricultural policy focus to ensure context sensitivity for a more robust battle against food insecurity.     

Agricultural production and sustainable development in a Brazilian region (Southwest,São Paulo State): motivations and barriers to adopting sustainable and ecologically friendly practices

The objective of this study is to identify the adoption level of practices associated with more sustainable agriculture and environmentally friendly practices. Additionally, the motivations for and barriers to the adoption of these practices by farmers are investigated. Data were collected through closed questionnaires taken by a random sample of farmers in the Southwest, São Paulo, Brazil, during the second half of 2013. Overall, sustainable agricultural practices recommended in the literature and analysed in this study are being not fully adopted by farmers of the studied area. The results showed that financial motivation is associated with farmers adopting new, more sustainable technology, whereas the lack of information on and lack of technical support for these technologies are significant barriers. Other results, research implications, limitations and suggestions for future research are presented.     

辽西大凌河流域土地利用变化及驱动力分析

从政策、流域综合治理、经济发展和技术进步、农民认知态度等4方面对影响大凌河流域土地利用变化的驱动力进行了分析。同时运用农户问卷调查和驱动力分析结果,选取影响耕地变化的社会经济和人口因子,运用主成分分析和多元迭代回归分析确定影响耕地变化的主要因子,并拟合出耕地变化的最优度模型。研究结果表明:在1987—2002年期间,农田和未利用荒地面积在不断减小,而林地、果园、草地在不断增加,但1995年后变化边际度大大减小;主成分分析表明影响土地利用变化主要影响因子是农业人口(A-POP)、总人口(T-POP)、农村经济收入(TIRE)、农林牧渔收入(IAFAF)和第三产业总产值(GTI);多元迭代回归分析表明耕地面积变化的最优回归模型中主变量是农业人口(A-POP)、总人口(T-POP)、农村经济收入(TIRE),这些变量能够解释95.1%的耕地变化。     

Empirical analysis on the influence of the Shaanxi fruit industry on regional food security

As part of its development policy to relieve rural poverty in west China, the Chinese government has introduced measures such as agricultural tax exemptions, agricultural subsidies, and scientific, technological and restructuring improvements to agriculture. Following these actions, farmers’ incomes have increased greatly and the economy in poor areas of west China has seen rapid improvements. However, agricultural restructuring, infrastructure construction and ecological restoration projects have reduced the area of land under arable farming, restricting opportunities for increasing total grain yield. Regional food security is therefore threatened and an imbalance between economic development and food security is created. Shaanxi is a representative province in west China where agricultural restructuring has resulted in large areas of arable land being converted into orchards that produce higher economic returns. This study randomly surveyed 1430 farm households in three counties in the apple-producing region of Shaanxi Province (Luochuan, Changwu and Baishui). The standard of living and household income of farmers in the fruit production areas were higher than in grain-producing areas, thus discouraging grain production. Land under agriculture in the counties studied comprised 59% orchards and 39% arable, with 2% under other uses. Per capita, 204.3 kg of grain was produced, 51% of that required for self-sufficiency. Other staple foods produced amounted to only 13.9% of that needed for self-sufficiency. As a result, nearly half of the grain needed by the community was purchased from outside, resulting in very poor regional food security. Clearly, fruit production in this region seriously affects regional food security. Coordination of relationships between rural economic development and regional food security is key for sustainable development of the regional agriculture and economy of west China.     

An agent based model to simulate structural and land use changes in agricultural systems of the argentine pampas

The Argentine Pampas, one of the main agricultural areas in the world, recently has undergone significant changes in land use and structural characteristics of agricultural production systems. Concerns about the environmental and societal impacts of the changes motivated development of an agent-based model (ABM) to gain insight on processes underlying recent observed patterns. The model is described following a standard protocol (ODD). Results are discussed for an initial set of simplified simulations performed to understand the processes that generated and magnified the changes in the Pampas. Changes in the structure of agricultural production and land tenure seem to be driven by differences among farmers’ ability to generate sufficient agricultural income to remain in business. In turn, as no off-farm or credit is modeled, economic sustainability is tied to initial resource endowment (area cropped). Farmers operating small areas are economically unviable and must lease out their farms to farmers operating larger areas. This leads to two patterns: (a) a concentration of production (fewer farmers operating larger areas) and, (b) an increase in the area operated by tenants. The simulations showed an increase of soybean area, linked to the higher profitability of this crop. Despite the stylized nature of initial simulations, all emerging patterns are highly consistent with changes observed in the Pampas.     

Rainfall-human-spatial interactions in a salinity-prone agricultural region of the Western Australian wheat-belt

To explore the complexity of temporal and spatial dynamics of an agricultural landscape under various external and internal driven scenarios, SimKat, an agent-based model, has been developed with the simulation computer program CORMAS. This model combines simplified bio-physical processes of land cover, regional dry-land salinity changes, rainfall impact on productivity, farm profitability and the complexity of land-use decisions of individual farmers in a dry-land agricultural catchment (no irrigation). In this model, simulated farmers formulate individual decisions dealing with land-use changes based on the combined performance of their past land cover productivity and market returns. The willingness to adapt to market drivers and the ability to maximize returns vary between farmers. In addition, farmers in the model can demonstrate various attitudes towards dry-land salinity mitigation as a consequence of experiencing and perceiving salinity on their farm, in the neighborhood or across the entire region. Consequently, farmers can adopt land cover strategies aimed at reducing dry-land salinity. Aggregating the simulated individual behavior of farmers combined with historical rainfall and market price records, reproduced similar aggregated trends of land-cover changes, regional salinity change and farm number decline as observed in the last 20 years in the subject region (Katanning, Western Australia). Using the model in an initial exploratory study on the impact of rainfall variability and change highlighted the importance of average rainfall decline and the widespread willingness of farmers to adapt perennial vegetation in their farming systems to combat regional dry-land salinity. Rainfall decline, as one of the observed consequences of climate change in this region, can also lead to prolonged sequences of dry seasons in the future. Adaptation by farmers to sequences of dry and wet seasons, rather than an average trend in rainfall, seems to be critical for farm survival in this region. Intensifying cropping during wet seasons to maximize farm returns can increase vulnerability in subsequent periods of dry seasons, in particular where alternative income from pasture and sheep production has been lost in the adaptation process.     

农户参与三氯杀螨醇替代技术培训积极性的影响因素分析

病虫害综合防治（1PM）技术旨在结合生物、农学及物理防治方法,合理使用化学农药,降低农业生产成本,保护农业劳动者健康和生态环境.以联合国开发计划署（UNDP）、环境保护部对外合作中心和全国农业技术推广中心联合启动实施的“中国含滴滴涕三氯杀螨醇生产控制及IPM技术替代全额示范项目”为例,系统分析影响农户参与IPM培训积极性的主要因素.结果表明,农户种植规模对农户参与IPM培训的积极性影响显著,学员性别和年龄不是影响其参加培训积极性的显著因素;学员参加培训的次数越多,其对IPM技术的采纳率越高.农民田间学校应更多地吸收老人和妇女参加三氯杀螨醇替代技术及IPM培训     

Determinants of voting on environmental quality: A study of a New Hampshire pulp mill referendum

A local referendum on a proposed pulp mill in eight New Hampshire towns provides a particularly apt sample for examining preferences on environmental issues. Interviews with 359 voters are examined to test various determinants of voting behavior. A utility maximizing model is tested using multiple-regression logit techniques. Significant variables are respondent's location, income, occupation, and education and the initial environment of the community. There is a brief discussion of public policy issues which these results may illuminate.     

Organic farmers in islands: Agricultural management and attitude towards the environment

SUMMARY

This study explores differences among organic farmers who live in islands and have isolated small-size operations. The relationships between farmers' characteristics and attitudes and farm management were interpreted by studying how they manage their land, their attitudes towards the environment and alternative farming systems, and their involvement in organic farming. The research was carried out using questionnaires addressed to organic farmers on the island of Thassos. Nonlinear canonical correlation was applied for data analysis. This information could contribute to adjustment of policy decisions for on-farm diversification. Agricultural policy makers should approach organic farmers in northern Thassos (productive irrigated olive orchards with gentle slopes) by enacting standards to reduce the cost of alternative plant protection methods and promoting their products in order to maintain and expand organic farming. They should also approach organic farmers in southern Thassos (less productive, dry cultivated olive orchards with steep slopes, overgrazed and often abandoned) by providing them with the necessary information and appropriate agricultural know-how to effectively manage their farms. Organic farmers with stable off-farm income are more aware of environmental values and consider that they risk less than others in order to gain the benefits of alternative farming systems. However, they should attend training programmes to achieve economic success to allow them to continue farming organically.     

Agricultural chemical exposure in small farmers in Guyana

A study of self-reported injury from agricultural chemical exposure was conducted in farmers in rural Guyana. One hundred and ninety agricultural workers were studied, of which 167 (88%) were male. Morbidity from agricultural chemical exposure was common, with 87 farmers (46%) reporting having experienced at least one episode of illness after agricultural chemical exposure. Relatively few of the farmers sought medical assistance for their symptoms, with only 20 farmers (11%) visiting a local doctor and only two farmers (1%) reporting going to a hospital for treatment. Local farmer use of protective equipment was limited. Pyrethroids and herbicides paraquat and glyphosate were the most commonly used agricultural chemicals in the population studied. Data showed that exposure to agricultural chemicals remains frequent, with incidence of severe injury requiring less frequent medical attention.     

The alignment of agricultural and nature conservation policies in the European Union

Europe is a region of relatively high population density and productive agriculture subject to substantial government intervention under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Many habitats and species of high conservation interest have been created by the maintenance of agricultural practices over long periods. These practices are often no longer profitable, and nature conservation initiatives require government support to cover the cost for them to be continued. The CAP has been reformed both to reduce production of agricultural commodities at costs in excess of world prices and to establish incentives for landholders to adopt voluntary conservation measures. A separate nature conservation policy has established an extensive series of protected sites (Natura 2000) that has, as yet, failed to halt the loss of biodiversity. Additional broader scale approaches have been advocated for conservation in the wider landscape matrix, including the alignment of agricultural and nature conservation policies, which remains a challenge. Possibilities for alignment include further shifting of funds from general support for farmers toward targeted payments for biodiversity goals at larger scales and adoption of an ecosystem approach. The European response to the competing demands for land resources may offer lessons globally as demands on rural land increase.     

Perceptions of small-scale fishermen on the value of marine resources and protected areas: case of Claveria,Northern Philippines

Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) helps to restore and sustain marine and fishery resources, but in the Philippines only 20% of total MPAs are achieving their management objectives. We conducted a case study of a small MPA in Northern Philippines to understand socio-economic status and livelihoods of the fishermen stakeholders, and examine their attitudes and perceptions on marine resource values and conservation. Using an ordered probit model, we also investigated factors affecting these perceptions. We found a lower fish income ratio in higher income quartiles, a small share of local non-fishery income, and an apparent lack of other livelihood opportunities within the rural economy. The majority of fishermen had positive perceptions of the non-market value of marine resources, agreed with the need for MPAs, and perceived positive potential income benefit from MPAs. Level of education and fishing income were consistent significant positive determinants of these perceptions. Policy implications suggest: involving likely-to-be-displaced reef fishers in the crafting of management plans; conducting intensive research on appropriate and feasible livelihood options, for example, marine culture technologies; and designing explicit strategies to increase the propensity of coastal households to invest in children's education as a strategy for long-term sustainability of resource management.     

发展农村沼气建设生态家园

以沼气建设为核心的“猪沼果”等生态家园技术模式的推广，在实施农业可持续发展战略中发挥了越来越重要的作用。这种模式，在促进农业结构调整、增加农民收入的同时，能保护和改善生态环境、高效利用资源、提高农产品的质量安全和改善农村环境卫生，从而实现家居温暖清洁化、庭院经济高效化和农业生产无害化的生态家园富民目标。     

An assessment of the causes and consequences of agricultural land abandonment in Europe

ABSTRACT

The agriculture sector is the principal source of income for around 20% of the EU-26 population, which live in predominantly rural regions that would be devastated without its contribution. Moreover, the combined agricultural and food sector forms an important part of the EU economy, accounting for 15 million jobs (8.3% of total employment) and 4.4% of GDP. The 12 million active farmers across Europe today, have an average farm size of about 15 ha, and are expected to meet the needs of 500 million Europeans. In addition, they are also expected to promote a sustainable and balanced development of their land, also in areas where production conditions are difficult. Yet, despite the relevance of the sector, the use of land for agriculture purposes is not very sustainable. Among other issues, there is a serious problem in respect of the abandonment of agricultural land. Based on the perceived need for research on this topic, the aim of this paper is to examine the causes and consequences of agricultural land abandonment, outlining its social, economic and environmental impacts, as well as the implications for territorial integration.     

苏格兰农业非点源污染管理措施评述及启示

农业是苏格兰非点源污染的主要来源,也是苏格兰水体污染的主要原因。介绍了苏格兰农业非点源污染的管理措施,包括:制定治理农业非点源污染的法律法规,并实施财政补贴的经济措施,以激励农场主采取科学的生产方式;通过修建人工湿地、缓冲带等技术措施减少农业非点源污染的影响,从而使河流水质得到提高。最后,探讨了对于苏格兰控制农业非点源污染的管理措施,中国可借鉴的经验,指出中国可从立法、经济措施、技术措施等方面完善农业非点源污染的管理,保护水环境。     

Ökonomisch-organisatorische Betrachtung der Klärschlammverwertung: Kosten — Nutzen — Ausstiegsszenarien

Goal and Scope

The controversial issue of disposing municipal sewage sludge on arable farmland and growing demand on derived fuels could result in a total or partial abandoning of sludge recycling as fertiliser. Alternative disposal strategies like incineration will cause complex changes. A material flow management framework is used to determine the economic-organisational consequences for public authorities, farmers, rural contractors, disposal firms, and population in Schleswig-Holstein.

Methods and Focus

The study is based upon network analysis, analysis of agricultural and wastewater statistics and interviews. After structuring the disposal process, transaction are used to derive costs of different disposal strategies. The purification technique of sewage plant and application of metal salts for precipitation affect the fertilising quality of sludge. Therefore, all plants are classified into 4 different technical groups with decreasing fertilising effect. Now, the amount of sludge and corresponding fertilising benefit is calculated both state wide and for typical farms. Finally costs of different disposal strategies are derived.

Results

Referring to sewage plants sludge disposal in Schleswig-Holstein is characterised by a local structure since less than 10% of all 841 sewage plants produce almost the entire sludge where as many small plants especially in rural areas produce only little amounts. Usually enriched with lime, dewatered sludge fulfilling legal limits is used as organic fertilizer. The number of transactions indicates the costs.

Discussion

To reduce transaction costs, disposal firms try to offer high quantities of sludge to a limited number of farmers. Due to purification technique, the fertilising effect of half the amount of total sludge is reduced. Compared to the total demand on phosphorous, sludge can only substitute up to 4% of phosphorous. Farmers can substitute up to 50% of mineral fertiliser and increase marginal income per hektare. Although changing disposal strategy to incineration would double economic costs, fee for wastewater would remain almost constant.

Conclusions

Small wastewater plants, farmers and rural contractors would be particularly affected by ceasing sludge disposal. Small wastewater plants would have to invest in dewatering equipment, rural contractors would lose an important market segment and farmers (only a small percentage of all farmers uses sludge) would lose additional income. Changing waste management from sludge disposal with many involved parties to e.g. incineration would considerably reduce transaction costs for authorities. In case of partly changing waste management strategy, whereas sludge of small plants could be recycled, the authorities would still have to plan and control the disposal process even for small quantities of sludge. Transaction costs do not decrease proportionally to the decreasing amount of sewage sludge.

Perspectives

Quality management systems initiated by disposal firms should increase the acceptance and prevent a ban of sludge recycling. Nevertheless, the waste market develops from material to energetic use of waste. Significant resources will be lost without a phosphorous recovering from sludge as well as from other organic waste.     

Region-gridding recycling of bulk organic waste: Emerging views based on coordinated urban and rural development

Bulk organic waste (BOW) has a large output in China. The improper disposal of BOW will not only bring serious environmental pollution, but also cause waste of biomass resources. The viewpoint proposes a region-gridding recycling management system of BOW that highlights the coordinated development of environmental, agricultural and energy elements in urban and rural areas. The viewpoint aims to drive the upstream and downstream industrial chains of BOW treatments, avoid the repeated construction of resource facilities, guide the upgrading of resource-based technologies, promote the professionalization of farmers, and thus built the high-quality modern agricultural recycling industrial park based on system management.     

Trade, technology, and the environment: Does access to technology promote environmental regulation?

Focusing specifically on regulation of coal-fired power plants, we examine how technological innovation by early adopters influences the timing of new environmental regulation in non-innovating countries. We build a general equilibrium model of an open economy to identify the political-economy determinants of regulation. With a newly created dataset of SO₂ and NO_x regulations for coal-fired power plants and a patent-based measure of the technology frontier, we estimate the determinants of environmental regulation diffusion. Our findings support the hypothesis that international economic integration eases access to environmentally friendly technologies and leads to earlier adoption, ceteris paribus, of regulation in non-innovating countries. However, we also find evidence that domestic trade protection promotes earlier adoption allowing shifts of regulatory costs to domestic consumers. Furthermore, international market power permits large countries to shift costs to foreign consumers. Other political economy factors, such as the quality of domestic coal, are also important determinants.     

Is current agronomy ready to promote sustainable agriculture? Identifying key skills and competencies needed

The quest for agricultural sustainability generates the need to develop functional support schemes aimed at supplying farmers with knowledge, information and appropriate solutions, thus smoothing the transition towards sustainable agriculture (SA). In this vein, it is expected that agronomists have to play a key role, plotting the course for a sustainable farming future. Nevertheless, a critical question is whether agronomists possess the skills and competencies needed to motivate and guide this transition process. Two studies were designed to examine which clusters of agronomists’ skills and competencies determine their ability to promote SA. Study 1, using data from a sample of farmers, revealed that agronomists’ level of knowledge on issues pertaining to SA, their networking capacities, facilitation competencies, and communication skills affect their ability to guide the transition towards sustainable farm production. Study 2, drawing on data from a sample of agronomists, confirmed the pivotal role of sustainability knowledge, facilitation skills and networking competencies on the aptitude to promote SA. Both studies uncovered that agronomists display low to moderate levels of these skills. Taken together, these results point out the need to reorganize agronomic (formal and lifelong) education in order to equip agronomists with new competencies and to enable them to effectively promote SA.     

Contribution of non-timber forest products to livelihoods of communities in southeast Nigeria

This paper examines the value of non-timber forest products (NTFP) and their determinants in communities in the vicinity of the Okwangwo Division of the Cross River National Park, Nigeria. The data for this study were generated from personal interviews conducted in three villages located near the buffer area of the national park. The study showed that income from NTFP was almost 13% of the total annual income of the respondents. Income from NTFP was influenced by factors such as income from non-traditional employment, the distance of respondents' residences to the park, income from farming and age. The results suggest that a shift from primarily subsistence to a more of cash economy may lead to unsustainable exploitation of NTFP.