Teil II: Die Energiebilanz der Universität Osnabrück

One central aspect of the environmental management system for universities developed in Osnabrück is the environmental audit of universities as realized by an ecobalance. This article deals with modelling of the material and energy flows caused by the energy supply of the University in Osnabrück using the software Umberto^®. The result is the university’s energy balance. 37% of the primary energy gets lost in the pre-processes of energy production, mainly during electricity generation. The final energy consumption of the university can be split into 37% electricity and 63% heat, whereas the relation of CO₂ emissions is almost the opposite. Related to this area, the electricity consumption in the different buildings is partially above that seen in similar university buildings in Germany, but below that of all the other values observed for universities located in Lower Saxony. Both the electricity and heat consumption, and therefore also the climate-damaging emissions of CO₂, have increased over the past years. Without further measures the university will not be able to achieve the CO₂-reduction target of the federal government. Recommended are the increased use of district heating power stations to produce the university’s own electricity with lower emissions and energy saving measures, especially in the field of electricity which is responsible for high CO₂-emissions.     

A decomposition analysis of CO2 emissions: evidence from Malaysia’s tourism industry

The most important question raised from issues of environmental degradation is how economic activities bring about changes that will result in pollution. In the pursuit of tourism economy, contrary to popular interest, the travel and tourism (T&T) industry may cause environmental damages through the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from energy consumption in areas such as transportation and delivery of amenities. Given this major concern, this paper attempts to investigate the linkage between tourism and CO₂ emissions in Malaysia between 1981 and 2011. In particular, this study fills the knowledge gap by taking a closer look at the impact of international tourist arrivals on CO₂ emissions by sector – electricity and heat generation and transport. Results from the bound test method suggest that there exists a long-run relationship among the variables under consideration when CO₂ emissions become the dependent variable. The original result is similarly robust to alternatives, which are CO₂ emissions from sectors of electricity and heat generation and transport. Furthermore, the vector error correction model causality analysis indicates a causal relationship between tourism and CO₂ emissions by transport and electricity and heat generation. Subsequently, several tourism-related policies are drawn from these findings.     

Long-run dynamics of renewable energy consumption on carbon emissions and economic growth in the European union

This paper examines long-run and short-run dynamics of renewable energy consumption on carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and economic growth in the European Union. This study employs cointegration tests, Granger causality tests and vector error correction estimates to examine the direction of Granger causality, the long-run dynamics of economic growth and energy variables on carbon emissions. This study analyses time series data from the World Development Indicators over the period from1961 to 2012. The results of this study support a link between renewable energy consumption, economic growth, industrialization, exports and CO₂ emissions in the long-run and short-run. The results support that the sign of the long-run dynamics from the endogenous variables to the CO₂ emissions variable is negative and significant, which implies that the energy and environmental policies of the European Union aimed at curbing CO₂ emissions must have been effective in the long-term. Furthermore, renewable energy consumption and exports have significant negative impact on CO₂ emissions in the short-run. However, industrialization and economic growth have positive impact on CO₂ emissions in the short-run. The results suggest that both economic growth and industrialization must have been achieved at the cost of harming the environment. The finding suggests that the increasing consumption of renewable energy tends to play an important role in curbing carbon emissions in the region.     

Efficient adsorption of carbon dioxide and methane on activated carbon prepared from glycerol with potassium acetate

In the context of global warming and the energy crisis, emissions to the atmosphere of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) should be reduced, and biomethane from landfill biogas should be recycled. For this, there is a need for affordable technologies to capture carbon dioxide, such as adsorption of biogas on activated carbon produced from industrial wastes. Here we converted glycerol, a largely available by-product from biodiesel production, into activated carbon with the first use of potassium acetate as an activating agent. We studied adsorption of CO₂ and CH₄ on activated carbon. The results show that activated carbon adsorb CO₂ up to 20% activated carbon weight at 250 kPa, and 9% at atmospheric pressure. This is explained by high specific surface areas up to 1115 m²g⁻¹. Moreover, selectivity values up to 10.6 are observed for the separation of CO₂/CH₄. We also found that the equivalent CO₂ emissions from activated carbon synthesis are easily neutralized by their use, even in a small biogas production unit.

     

Teil III: Die Verkehrsbilanz der Universität Osnabrück

One central aspect of the environmental management system for universities developed in Osnabrück is the environmental audit of universities, realized by an ecobalance. This article deals with modelling the material and energy flows caused by the University’s commuters (staff and students), and by the business trips of employees, using the software Umberto^®. The result is the University’s traffic balance. 10,000 MWh of energy are consumed yearly by the University’s traffic. 94% of the consumption is caused by commuters (1,300 employees and 11,500 students) and only 6% by business trips. Compared with the whole energy consumption of the University, the traffic’s share is 32% and therefore lies between the electricity’s share (25%) and that of heat (43%). Similarly related are the CO₂ emissions, caused by traffic (3,160 tons per anno). Compared with the whole CO₂ emissions of the University the traffic’s share is 31%, thus putting it between the heat’s share (27%) and that of electricity (42%). Although the average weekly distance the University’s commuters drive (79 km/student and 84 km/employer) is at the bottom of the range for other comparable universities, a transportation demand management for a further reduction of the traffic-caused CO₂ emissions should be implemented.     

Integrierte Treibhausgasbewertung der Prozessketten von Erdgas und industriellem Biomethan in Deutschland

Background The use of natural gas has increased in the last years. In the future, its import supply and transport structure will diversify (longer distances, higher share of LNG (liquefied natural gas), new pipelines). Thus the process chain and GHG emissions of the production, processing, transport and distribution might change. Simultaneously, the injection of bio methane into the natural gas grid is becoming more important. Although its combustion is regarded as climate neutral, during the production processes of bio methane GHG emissions are caused. The GHG emissions occurring during the process chain of energy fuels are relevant for the discussion on climate policy and decision making processes. They are becoming even more important, considering the new Fuel Quality Directive of the EU (Dec. 2008), which aims at controlling emissions of the fuel process chains. Aim In the context of the aspects outlined above the aim is to determine the future development of gas supply for Germany and the resulting changes in GHG emissions of the whole process chain of natural gas and bio methane. With the help of two gas consumption scenarios and an LCA of bio methane, the amount of future emissions and emission paths until 2030 can be assessed and used to guide decision processes in energy policy. Results and discussion The process chain of bio methane and its future technical development are outlined and the related emissions calculated. The analysis is based on an accompanying research study on the injection of bio methane to the German gas grid. Two types of biogas plants have been considered whereof the “optimised technology” is assumed to dominate the future market. This is the one which widely exploits the potential of process optimisation of the current “state of the art” plant. The specific GHG emissions of the process chain can thus be nearly halved from currently 27.8?t CO₂-eq./TJ to 14.8?t CO₂-eq./TJ in 2030. GHG emissions of the natural gas process chain have been analysed in detail in a previous article. Significant modifications and a decrease of specific emissions is possible, depending on the level of investment in the modernisation of the gas infrastructure and the process improvements. These mitigation options might neutralise the emission increase resulting from longer distances and energy intensive processes. In the last section two scenarios (low and high consumption) illustrate the possible development of the German gas supply until 2030, given an overall share of 8–12?% of bio methane. Considering the dynamic emission factors calculated in the former sections, the overall gas emissions and average specific emissions of German gas supply can be given. The current emissions of 215.4 million t CO₂-eq. are reduced by 25?% in the low-consumption scenario (162 million t CO₂-eq.), where consumption is reduced by 17?%. Assuming a consumption which is increased by 17?% in 2030, emissions are around 7?% higher (230.9 million t CO₂-eq.) than today. Conclusions Gaseous fuels will still play a significant role for the German energy supply in the next two decades. The GHG emissions mainly depend on the amount of gas used. Thus, energy efficiency will be a key issue in the climate and energy related policy discussion. A higher share of bio methane and high investments in mitigation and best available technologies can significantly reduce the emissions of the process chain. The combustion of bio methane is climate neutral compared to 56?t CO₂/TJ caused by the direct combustion of natural gas (or 111?t CO₂/TJ emitted by lignite). The advantage of gaseous energy carriers with the lowest levels of GHG emissions compared to other fossil fuels still remains. This holds true for fossil natural gas alone as well as for the expected future blend with bio-methane.     

Does the presence of wind turbines have negative externalities for people in their surroundings? Evidence from well-being data

Throughout the world, governments foster the deployment of wind power to mitigate negative externalities of conventional electricity generation, notably CO₂ emissions. Wind turbines, however, are not free of externalities themselves, particularly interference with landscape aesthetics. We quantify these negative externalities using the life satisfaction approach. To this end, we combine household data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) with a novel panel dataset on over 20,000 installations. Based on geographical coordinates and construction dates, we establish causality in a difference-in-differences design. Matching techniques drawing on exogenous weather data and geographical locations of residence ensure common trend behaviour. We show that the construction of wind turbines close to households exerts significant negative external effects on residential well-being, although they seem both spatially and temporally limited, being restricted to about 4000 m around households and decaying after five years at the latest. Robustness checks, including view shed analyses based on digital terrain models and placebo regressions, confirm our results.     

Decomposition analysis of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions in the iron and steel industry in China

This work aims to identify the main factors influencing the energy-related carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from the iron and steel industry in China during the period of 1995–2007. The logarithmic mean divisia index (LMDI) technique was applied with period-wise analysis and time-series analysis. Changes in energyrelated CO₂ emissions were decomposed into four factors: emission factor effect, energy structure effect, energy consumption effect, and the steel production effect. The results show that steel production is the major factor responsible for the rise in CO₂ emissions during the sampling period; on the other hand the energy consumption is the largest contributor to the decrease in CO₂ emissions. To a lesser extent, the emission factor and energy structure effects have both negative and positive contributions to CO₂ emissions, respectively. Policy implications are provided regarding the reduction of CO₂ emissions from the iron and steel industry in China, such as controlling the overgrowth of steel production, improving energy-saving technologies, and introducing low-carbon energy sources into the iron and steel industry.     

The determinants of CO2 emissions in MENA countries: a responsiveness scores approach

This paper examines the relationship among carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, GDP, and energy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries by using a Responsiveness Scores (RS) approach. Empirical results over the period 1971–2013 suggest that GDP per capita and energy consumption show positive RSs, while trade and urban population negative ones. Moreover, energy consumption and urban population reveal moderate increasing returns to scale, while GDP per capita exhibits decreasing positive returns. Furthermore, three-way factors analysis sets out that most of the countries lays on regions with moderate negative Total Responsiveness Scores (TRS). This means that when all factors are jointly increased, CO₂ emissions have a moderate decrease. In addition, some GCC countries present a different pattern compared to the average pattern of MENA countries. Finally, radar plots indicate that, overall, RS pattern over factors is moderately heterogeneous within GCC countries, with larger variability appearing in the response to urban population and GDP.     

The dynamic causal links between CO2 emissions from transport,real GDP,energy use and international tourism

This study examines the dynamic causality relationship between international tourism and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from transport, real gross domestic product and energy use. The vector error correction model and Granger causality test approach have been used to investigate these relationships for the top ten international tourism destinations spanning the period 1995–2013. Results reveal a unidirectional causality running from CO₂ emissions to economic growth without feedback; a bidirectional causality between economic growth and energy use; a bidirectional causality between international tourism and economic growth; and a bidirectional causality between international tourism and energy use. They also suggest that energy use and international tourism both contribute to the decrease of emissions level coming from transport sector, while economic growth leads to the increase of CO₂ emissions. This study can be used in policy recommendations by encouraging countries to use clean energy and to stimulate tourism sector for combating global warming.     

Challenge of global climate change: Prospects for a new energy paradigm

Perspectives on the challenge posed by potential future climate change are presented including a discussion of prospects for carbon capture followed either by sequestration or reuse including opportunities for alternatives to the use of oil in the transportation sector. The potential for wind energy as an alternative to fossil fuel energy as a source of electricity is outlined including the related opportunities for cost effective curtailment of future growth in emissions of CO₂.     

中国家庭消费的生态影响——以家庭生活用电为例

中国生活部门能源消费占能源消费总量的12％，以电能消费为例，用生命周期方法计算了中国家庭1985年和1998年因生活用电而间接产生的CO2、SOx和烟尘的排放。结果发现，与1985年相比，1998年3种污染物的排放量对全国的贡献率分别增加了5．06％，5．16％和3．57％。说明在中国开展家庭消费生态影响研究的重要意义。     

Direct use values of communal resources in Bokong and Tsehlanyane in Lesotho: whither the commons?

SUMMARY

This paper presents a comprehensive assessment of the contribution of communal resources to households in Bokong and Tsehlanyane in Lesotho. It argues that communal resources are an extremely important element in the livelihoods of people in the study area. It uses households as units of analysis in order to gain an understanding of the role that communal resources play at the micro level before any extrapolations are made to the regional and national levels. A household survey, guided by a detailed semistructured questionnaire, was used. Ten newly constructed houses and vegetable garden enclosures were sampled to categorize and count all poles used to build them. The amount of thatch grass used in building those houses was also estimated. The results indicated that communal resources play a central role in the livelihoods of people in the area with firewood ($1492), crops ($1363) and wild vegetables ($774) recording the highest annual use values per household^?1 yr^?1. The total present value was estimated at $3899 household^?1 yr^?1 with firewood, crops and wild vegetables constituting 93% of that value. The study further demonstrated that communal resources are used across the entire income spread in the area, thereby negating the general belief that they are a preserve of the poor. Finally, the results demonstrated that very little value is derived through trading of resources both within and outside the area but through direct consumption within households invariably escaping national economic accounting. With declining employment rates in Lesotho due to continued retrenchments in the South African mining industry, communal resources in the country remain an indispensable resource that must be carefully managed for the common good.     

The private and social economics of bulk electricity storage

The ability to store excess intermittent renewable electricity is increasingly being seen as a key option for integrating large quantities of renewable capacity. However, intermittent energy sources currently account for very small amounts of total generation. Despite this fact, policymakers have begun implementing requirements that will dramatically increase the amount of bulk storage capacity. This paper examines the social benefits provided by bulk storage in the Texas electricity market, which has a large amount of renewable capacity relative to other states, but still quite limited renewable penetration. We focus on the impact of arbitraging electricity across time—a major service of bulk storage. Using current storage technologies, we demonstrate that electricity arbitrage will increase daily CO₂ emissions by an average of 0.19 tons for each MWh stored. In addition, daily SO₂ emissions will increase by an average of 1.89 pounds/MWh while NO_X emissions will fall by an average of 0.15 pounds/MWh.     

Economic and environmental performance of electricity production in Finland: A multicriteria assessment framework

Meeting environmental, economic, and societal targets in energy policy is complex and requires a multicriteria assessment framework capable of exploring trade-offs among alternative energy options. In this study, we integrated economic analysis and biophysical accounting methods to investigate the performance of electricity production in Finland at plant and national level. Economic and environmental costs of electricity generation technologies were assessed by evaluating economic features (direct monetary production cost), direct and indirect use of fossil fuels (GER cost), environmental impact (CO₂ emissions), and global environmental support (emergy cost). Three scenarios for Finland's energy future in 2025 and 2050 were also drawn and compared with the reference year 2008. Accounting for an emission permit of 25 €/t CO₂, the production costs calculated for CHP, gas, coal, and peat power plants resulted in 42, 67, 68, and 74 €/MWh, respectively. For wind and nuclear power a production cost of 63 and 35 €/MWh were calculated. The sensitivity analysis confirmed wind power's competitiveness when the price of emission permits overcomes 20 €/t CO₂. Hydro, wind, and nuclear power were characterized by a minor dependence on fossil fuels, showing a GER cost of 0.04, 0.13, and 0.26 J/J_e, and a value of direct and indirect CO₂ emissions of 0.01, 0.04, and 0.07 t CO₂/MWh. Instead, peat, coal, gas, and CHP plants showed a GER cost of 4.18, 4.00, 2.78, and 2.33 J/J_e. At national level, a major economic and environmental load was given by CHP and nuclear power while hydro power showed a minor load in spite of its large production. The scenario analysis raised technological and environmental concerns due to the massive increase of nuclear power and wood biomass exploitation. In conclusion, we addressed the need to further develop an energy policy for Finland's energy future based on a diversified energy mix oriented to the sustainable exploitation of local, renewable, and environmentally friendly energy sources.     

Teil VI: Die Ökobilanz der Universität Osnabrück

Within the development of the “Osnabrück Environmental Management Model for Universities,” an environmental audit for the university has been carried out for the first time. It was implemented by way of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) based on ISO 14 040. Following this, an LCA includes the four steps:goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment andinterpretation. The impact assessment phase of the LCA was carried out following the ”UBA-Method” of the German Federal Environmental Agency (UBA) which is based on the method of impact categories described in ISO 14 040 and implemented in the software Umberto^®. The most significant results are that the University contributes “considerably” towards both categories, “Depletion of fossil energy resources” and “Climate change”. The main causes of this are electricity and heat consumption as well as traffic. In order to improve its environmental situation, the university has been recommended to reduce its CO₂ emissions, its consumption of fossil energy resources and its methane emissions.     

农户能源利用方式的选择与农村环境的变化:某贫困山村薪炭林利用案例研究

为了深入了解农户能源利用状况与农村环境的相互作用关系,对一个贫困山村进行了为期15天的实地考察。通过问卷调查,入户访谈等方式,收集了50余份问卷和大量原始数据、图片资料,发现当地农户在利用薪材能源作为燃料直接燃烧时并不会带来对当地森林资源的破坏,但能源利用效率不高;而在用薪材能源作为香菇培养基原料时显著地提高了能源利用效率,却也严重影响了当地森林资源的可持续利用。由此可见,能源利用方式的选择与农村环境的变化息息相关。为了保证农村能源的可持续利用,人们需要同时考虑农村环境的承载能力,这就决定了改善农户能源利用状况不能单纯以提高能源利用效率为目标。在结合当地客观条件,综合当地政府、当地农户的意见的基础上,提出了当地能源利用的最佳方向应该是:在不增加农民支出前提下,鼓励农民改善薪材能源的利用方式,力图达到提高能源利用效率和森林资源可持续利用的“双赢”目的。     

Evaluating CO2 reduction strategies in the US

We constructed a model to simulate emissions of CO₂ from electricity generation in the US and, using the model, we developed 20-year projections of emissions under various regulatory scenarios.     

Technological influences and abatement strategies for industrial sulphur dioxide in China

Industrial SO₂ is the most important air pollutant in China. This paper outlines the technological impacts on industrial SO₂ emissions in China in terms of: amount, intensity, structure of energy consumption and structure of energy-intensive industries. It shows that industrial SO₂ emissions have linear growth alongside increases in energy consumption, particularly the rise in coal consumption. The contribution of technological factors to decreases in the intensity of energy consumption is 25%, while the structural factor is 75%. The power industry accounts for 52.6% of total industrial SO₂. Optimisation of the structure of energy consumption can reduce SO₂ emissions by 1.98 million tonnes per year. We propose the following technological strategies for industrial SO₂ abatement: adjustment of the system and structure of thermal power generating units, acceleration of flue gas desulphurisation projects, transformation of industrial structures, development of eco-industries and a reduction in energy consumption per unit product. In addition, an effective way to abate industrial SO₂ emissions is to promote governance strategies to stricly enforce SO₂ emission standards, conduct emission trading, and formulate incentives for encouraging cleaner production and clean energy development.