Assessment of land degradation and its impact on crop production in the Dry Zone of Myanmar

Land degradation in terms of soil degradation is a major environmental issue posing threat to sustainable livelihood in the semi-arid region of Central Myanmar. However, the studies on soil degradation status and its impacts in this region are very scanty. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of land degradation on crop production both in terms of area and yield in the Dry Zone of Myanmar. Remote sensing and geographic information system-based modelling was utilized to assess and map soil erosion rates. Household survey was conducted to understand the causes of land degradation and its impacts on crop productivity and livelihoods. It has been found out that the current rate of soil erosion ranged from 0 to 114 t ha^–1 yr^–1, and that the average rate of soil erosion increased from 14.2 to 54.6 t ha^–1 yr^–1 over a period from 2000 to 2012. The major types of land degradation were physical and chemical soil degradation. Farmers identified topographic condition, soil types, improper crop management practices and climatic factors as the main causes of soil erosion. The observed crop yields of monsoon rice, groundnut, sesame and cotton in the highly degraded area were 3–12 times lower compared with the yields of these crops grown in less degraded area. Livelihoods of the farmers in the high-degraded area were affected by crop yield reduction, increased cultivation cost and increased uncultivable land area. The impact of land degradation on crop production was dependent on the severity of degradation. This suggests that advanced conservation measures are immediately required and the supportive policy strategies need to be implemented to educate farmers and to strengthen extension services for sustainable land management in the Dry Zone of Myanmar.     

Economic and Social Dimensions of Environmental Behavior: Balancing Conservation and Development in Bhutan

Abstract: One of the primary approaches to environmental conservation emphasizes economic development. This conservation‐and‐development approach often ignores how development affects sociocultural characteristics that may motivate environmental behaviors (actions that actively benefit or limit one's negative impacts on the environment). Evolutionary anthropologists espouse a theoretical perspective that supports the conservation‐and‐development approach. Others believe sociocultural factors are the foundation of environmental behavior and worry that development will erode the values and norms that may shape such behavior. My research assistants and I surveyed 170 individuals from eight villages in two communities in Bhutan to explore whether economic (wealth, market integration) or social (religious behaviors, environmental values, social capital) factors are better indicators of environmental behavior. I used multilevel modeling to analyze use of fuelwood, use of agricultural chemicals, and tree planting, and to determine whether social norms were associated with these behaviors. Although economic factors were more often associated with these behaviors than social factors, local conditions and control variables were the best indicators of behaviors. Furthermore, economic factors were not always associated with positive environmental outcomes. Instead, farmers attempted to make the best economic decisions given their circumstances rather than seeking to conserve resources. Although religion was not a strong predictor of any of the behaviors I examined, I found evidence that the understanding of Buddhist philosophy is growing, which suggests that social factors may play a more prominent role as Bhutan's development progresses. My results highlight the need for conservation planners to be aware of local conditions when planning and implementing policies aimed at motivating environmental behaviors and that economic and social motivations for conservation may not be mutually exclusive.     

Ecological issues and risk assessment in China

As a result of economic development and population explosion, global ecological environments have been severely disturbed and markedly changed. An ecological crisis involving desertification, soil erosion, degradation of land quality, loss of biodiversity and global climate change has been brought about all over the world. In order to manage ecosystems efficiently, it is necessary to assess ecological risk at multiple scales. Ecological risk is the probability that a region and/or site will experience defined ecological or environmental problems. In this paper, the ecological risks of soil erosion, desertification, and acid deposition have been assessed on a national scale according to natural and human factors, such as topography, soil, vegetation and climate. This assessment has provided very useful information for ecological environmental management in China.     

高尔夫球场建设对生态系统影响分析及环境管理对策

通过对高尔夫球场建设过程、特点及主要生态环境影响因子分析，指出高尔夫球场建设需占用大量土地，尤其是农业生态区域，对地表形态、农业生产、水土流失、水环境等均有不同程度的不利影响，对落后地区社会经济具有带动作用。在以安徽元一高尔夫球场为例进行分析基础上，提出了高尔夫球场建设与运营管理的生态环境管理对策。     

Valuation of climate-change effects on Mediterranean shrublands.

In general, the socioeconomic analysis of natural systems does not enter into the realms of natural science. This paper, however, estimates the human-welfare effects of possible physicochemical and biological impacts of climate change on Mediterranean shrublands over the coming 50 years. The contingent choice method was applied to elicit the trade-offs in perceived values for three climate-sensitive attributes of shrubland (plant cover, fire risk, and soil erosion) and for the costs of programs designed to mitigate changes. Soil erosion was found to be the attribute of shrubland that most concerned the population, followed by fire risk and then plant cover. An increase of 1% in the shrubland area affected by erosion was estimated to cost each person on average 2.9 euros per year in terms of lost welfare, a figure that is equivalent in terms of perceptions of social welfare to an increase of 0.24% in the shrub area burned annually and a decrease of 3.19% in the area of plant cover. These trade-off values may help ecologists, policy makers, and land managers to take social preferences into account.     

A Biophysical Toolbox for assessment and management of land and water resources in rural catchments in Northern Thailand

With rapid intensification of agricultural catchments in Northern Thailand a suite of environmental issues has surfaced. The Integrated Water Resources Assessment and Management (IWRAM) project was instigated in response to these issues. The project developed a Decision Support System (DSS) for the exploration of biophysical and socio-economic impacts of water resource use options. The IWRAM-DSS is comprised of a ‘Biophysical Toolbox’ that can be implemented alone and an ‘Integrated Toolbox’ that links socio-economic models with the Biophysical Toolbox to explore economic trade-offs and impacts of various scenarios. The Biophysical Toolbox is comprised of three modules—the CATCHCROP crop model, a hydrologic module based upon the IHACRES rainfall-runoff model, and a Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) approach modified to suit conditions in Northern Thailand. This paper describes the Biophysical Toolbox and runs forest conversion, land management, and climate scenarios to demonstrate the potential of this tool in exploring the environmental effects of land and water management options.     

Impacts of Fire-Suppression Activities on Natural Communities

Abstract:  The ecological impacts of wildland fire-suppression activities can be significant and may surpass the impacts of the fire itself. A recent paradigm shift from fire control to fire management has resulted in increased attention to minimizing the negative effects of suppression. While the philosophy behind minimum-impact suppression tactics has provided a good first step in this direction, increased attention to the ecological effects of suppression is needed, especially in the management of public lands. We reviewed the potential impacts of suppression on land, air, and water resources and the impacts of using fire to help control fire. Effects on land resources include erosion, which is exacerbated by the construction of fire lines, temporary roads, and helicopter pads, and some postfire rehabilitation activities. Although the fire itself is the most obvious source of air pollution, the vehicles used in suppression activities contribute to this problem and to noise pollution. Water resources, including aquatic flora and fauna, may be seriously affected by suppression activities that can increase erosion, sedimentation, turbidity, and chemical contamination. Finally, the use of backburns and burnout operations contributes to the risk of soil and water contamination, increases the total area burned, and promotes more intense fires or more homogeneous burned areas. Although no fire-management strategy should be applied uniformly, some general techniques such as use of natural clearings, natural barriers, and appropriately sized fire lines, "leave no-trace" camping, and careful application of fuels and retardants can be employed to minimize the impacts of suppression.     

Social cost–benefit analysis of Karnataka Watershed Development (KAWAD) project,Karnataka, India

This paper presents results of a social cost–benefit analysis (CBA) of afforestation and soil moisture treatment of common lands under an integrated watershed development programme in Karnataka State, India. The aim of the study was to find out if soil moisture conservation and afforestation measures were justified in terms of economic efficiency. The assessment was undertaken by calculating the economic internal rate of return (EIRR) for five village common lands in two watersheds, Uparhalla and Chinnahagari, in central Karnataka. Focused group discussions were organised, using a semi-structured questionnaire and various stakeholders, including project implementing agencies, self help groups and other community-based organisations. The attractiveness of the programme in both watersheds for landless and land owners was high in three out of five sampled villages, with an EIRR ranging from 19% to 91%, while two villages in Chinnahagari watershed had extremely low EIRR, reflecting poor management of soil moisture and afforestation interventions and lack of institutional cohesion to sustain investments made to develop common lands. Therefore, the CBA conducted in the KAWAD project, except for two villages, shows that the investment made to develop common lands should yield substantial economic returns in the long term under a business as usual scenario.     

贵州省水土流失中土壤侵蚀经济损失估值

利用环境经济学的基本原理和方法 ,针对贵州省土壤侵蚀严重的现状 ,选择了土壤侵蚀造成的N、P、K及泥沙滞留、淤积 5种实物型损失作为衡量土壤侵蚀经济损失的指标 ,从场内损失与场外损失 2个方面估算出贵州省土壤侵蚀经济损失的货币化结果 ,并把土壤侵蚀经济损失的货币化值与经济建设的主要指标进行对比 ,以反映贵州省土壤侵蚀经济损失的程度 ,并阐明了一些过去尚未弄清的有关土壤侵蚀经济损失方面的概念。     

广东土地抗蚀潜势初步研究

利用计算机和地理信息系统软件．研究了广东省的土壤质地、土壤有机质、地势三个侵蚀因子对土壤侵蚀方面的影响，指出了广东土地抗蚀性极弱地区主要是湛江市、新丰县的小部分地区，而抗蚀性弱的区域则很大，约占全省土地面积的49．8％，遍布全省中部和南部．针对这样的现状，提出要减少抗蚀性弱和极弱地区的土壤侵蚀，必须做到：对土地的利用开垦进行统一规划；严禁乱伐森林；采取生物措施和工程措施相结合的方式防治土壤侵蚀的进一步变化．     

土地石漠化的生态地质环境背景及其驱动机制--以贵州省喀斯特山区为例

在分析贵州省喀斯特山区的土地石漠化的生态地质环境背景基础上 ,探讨了土地石漠化内、外动力驱动机制。认为地质构造运动塑造了陡峻而破碎的喀斯特地貌景观 ,由此产生的较大地表切割度和地形坡度 ,为水土流失提供了动力潜能 ;古环境演化为喀斯特石漠化提供了广泛分布的碳酸盐物质。温暖潮湿的季风气候为喀斯特地貌的强烈发育提供了必要的溶蚀条件 ,超载的社会经济压力则是导致喀斯特山区土地石漠化最重要的驱动力。     

土壤学与广东持续农业的发展

持续农业是关于建立资源、生态、地力、经济效益等各个方面均可持续发展的农业制度的一种思想．水土流失、土地退化、耕地锐减、环境污染，制约着广东农业的持续发展．土壤学应围绕持续农业开展研究工作．目前应加强土壤生态环境的保护，防治土地退化，提高土壤肥力，保证耕地生产力的持续发展．应开展土壤资源的动态变化研究，为合理开发和利用土壤资源提供科学依据．     

Adaptive social impact management for conservation and environmental management

Concerns about the social consequences of conservation have spurred increased attention the monitoring and evaluation of the social impacts of conservation projects. This has resulted in a growing body of research that demonstrates how conservation can produce both positive and negative social, economic, cultural, health, and governance consequences for local communities. Yet, the results of social monitoring efforts are seldom applied to adaptively manage conservation projects. Greater attention is needed to incorporating the results of social impact assessments in long‐term conservation management to minimize negative social consequences and maximize social benefits. We bring together insights from social impact assessment, adaptive management, social learning, knowledge coproduction, cross‐scale governance, and environmental planning to propose a definition and framework for adaptive social impact management (ASIM). We define ASIM as the cyclical process of monitoring and adaptively managing social impacts over the life‐span of an initiative through the 4 stages of profiling, learning, planning, and implementing. We outline 14 steps associated with the 4 stages of the ASIM cycle and provide guidance and potential methods for social‐indicator development, predictive assessments of social impacts, monitoring and evaluation, communication of results, and identification and prioritization of management responses. Successful ASIM will be aided by engaging with best practices – including local engagement and collaboration in the process, transparent communication of results to stakeholders, collective deliberation on and choice of interventions, documentation of shared learning at the site level, and the scaling up of insights to inform higher‐level conservation policies‐to increase accountability, trust, and perceived legitimacy among stakeholders. The ASIM process is broadly applicable to conservation, environmental management, and development initiatives at various scales and in different contexts.     

Soil erosion hazard evaluation—An integrated use of remote sensing,GIS and statistical approaches with biophysical parameters towards management strategies

Soil erosion hazard maps can be an essential tool in erosion prone areas as they explain and display the distribution of hazards and areas likely to be affected to different magnitudes. Therefore, it is very useful to planners and policy makers initiating remedial measures and for prioritizing areas. In this study, a numerical model was developed for soil erosion hazard assessment, in which Z-score analysis was combined with a geographical information system (GIS) to compute a synthetic soil erosion hazard index (SEHI). For this model, nine factors which have notable impact on soil erosion were selected. To generate the selected factors remote sensing, analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and GIS techniques along with spatial models were applied. To standardize all of the factors and establish the factor weights, the AHP method was adopted. For Z-score analysis with selected standardized factors, the Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) software was used and nine individual layers with Z-scores were prepared. Afterwards, the layers were integrated with their factor weights by means of a weighted linear combination to derive a SEHI value for each pixel. To classify the discrete SEHI map to represent a meaningful regionalization of soil erosion hazard, the equal distance cluster principle was used and graded into four levels of hazard; very high, high, moderate and low. The results depicted that in general, a moderate hazardous condition of soil erosion was found in the study area and the proposed approach was also able to identify the areas under high and very high hazards that require urgent intervention on a priority basis. Based on this study, comprehensive erosion hazard management strategies were anticipated for the efficient management of present and future erosion disaster in the area.     

不同利用方式下吴江市耕地土壤环境质量变化

土地利用方式的不同影响着土壤环境质量的变化。文章采用了2003年江苏省吴江市耕地质量监测中资料,分析了6种不同土地利用方式下的土壤养分及Pb、Cr、Hg、As、Cd等5种重金属元素全量的变化,并采用土壤质量综合指数(SQI)法计算不同利用下的土壤环境质量指数。结果表明:近20多年来,吴江市土地利用方式发生了明显的变化,这种变化对本土壤养分和重金属含量产生了十分明显的影响。在稻田、林地、桑园、菜地、果园、旱地六种吴江常见的土地利用方式中,稻田土壤环境质量综合指数显著高于其他利用下,而其他五种利用方式下土壤质量的差别不明显。可见稻田不仅是一种太湖地区传统的利用方式,更是保持环境质量相对最佳的土地利用方式。     

Impacts of vineyard area dynamics on soil erosion in a Mediterranean catchment (1950-2011)

The Mediterranean basin has undergone widespread land cover change. Urbanization of coastal areas, land abandonment of steeper slopes, and agricultural intensification in alluvial plains are recurrent themes. The objective of this study was to examine how vineyard land cover changes have affected agricultural soil erosion in a 50 year period (1950–2011). The study area covers a 235 km² catchment located near the Gulf of St Tropez. Aerial photographs were used to map land cover in 1950, 1982, 2003 and 2011, and the RUSLE soil erosion model was run to estimate soil erosion.

Between 1950 and 2011, vineyard went from about 2,426 ha to 1,561 ha. Mean soil erosion increased as vineyard slopes became steeper (11.8 T ha^?1, 13.2 T ha^?1, 14.4 T ha^?1 and 13.5 T ha^?1 for 1950, 1982, 2003 and 2011). Total erosion decreased after 1982: 28,621 T y^?1 in 1950, 29,030 T y^?1 in 1982, 22,848 T y^?1 in 2003, and 21,074 T y^?1 in 2011. Total soil loss in 2011 is about 75% of values in 1950–1982, so impacts on water pollution and channel dredging have evolved positively over time.     

In-between soil erosion and sustainable land management: climate aridity and vegetation in a traditional agro-forest system (Costiera Amalfitana,southern Italy)

The delineation of bioclimatic areas is a key tool in informing sustainable land management strategies, especially in the light of climate change. It requires an in-depth analysis of climate data but also of the physical and biological factors that affect the distribution of natural vegetation. The present study applies an exploratory data analysis aimed at defining bioclimatic conditions in an area characterized by steep slopes and prone to soil erosion (Amalfi Coast, southern Italy). To this end, we analyzed long-term (1959–1999) monthly rainfall and temperature data measured at 28 gauging stations within the study area using a geographic information system and multivariate statistical tools. Then, we analyzed how the spatial distribution of rainfall and temperature data relates to topography, vegetation cover, and soil erosion. We also derived bioclimatic indicators from the geostatistical analysis. We then identify and comment on drawbacks found in the procedure used in the present study, discussing possible solutions to overcome such problems. We finally discuss the potential contribution of this study to the development of sustainable land management policies for socio-ecological systems with complex topography.     

A reclamation demonstration project at an abandoned deep mine

This project involves an evaluation of the reclamation process at a typical abandoned deep coal mine in the Midwest, U.S.A. The reclamation process included determining the final land use, collection of preconstruction environmental data, development of detailed construction plans, and implementation of the construction plans. A multidisciplinary approach is being used to evaluate post-construction conditions of the site. Current investigations are monitoring groundwater, surface water quality, aquatic ecosystems, revegetation, soil characteristics, erosion and runoff, soil microbial populations, wildlife, and economic effects of the reclamation. Data collected to date indicate a significant improvement in overall environmental quality, a substantial increase in the economic potential of the site and adjacent properties, and a genuine enhancement of the entire area's aesthetic value. This project will also provide design data for future reclamation efforts of this type.This project is financially supported by the following agencies: U.S. Department of Energy, Contract No. W31-109-Eng-38; Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation Council, State of Illinois Contract No. 31-109-38-3694L; Illinois Institute of Natural Resources, Contract No. 31-109-38-3702L.     

Assessing the local economic impacts of land protection

Land protection, whether public or private, is often controversial at the local level because residents worry about lost economic activity. We used panel data and a quasi-experimental impact-evaluation approach to determine how key economic indicators were related to the percentage of land protected. Specifically, we estimated the impacts of public and private land protection based on local area employment and housing permits data from 5 periods spanning 1990–2015 for all major towns and cities in New England. To generate rigorous impact estimates, we modeled economic outcomes as a function of the percentage of land protected in the prior period, conditional on town fixed effects, metro-region trends, and controls for period and neighboring protection. Contrary to narratives that conservation depresses economic growth, land protection was associated with a modest increase in the number of people employed and in the labor force and did not affect new housing permits, population, or median income. Public and private protection led to different patterns of positive employment impacts at distances close to and far from cities, indicating the importance of investing in both types of land protection to increase local opportunities. The greatest magnitude of employment impacts was due to protection in more rural areas, where opportunities for both visitation and amenity-related economic growth may be greatest. Overall, we provide novel evidence that land protection can be compatible with local economic growth and illustrate a method that can be broadly applied to assess the net economic impacts of protection.     

Mapping and evaluating sugarcane expansion in Brazil’s savanna using MODIS and intensity analysis: a case-study from the state of Tocantins

In Brazil, the main biofuel crop is sugarcane, and with its rapid expansion, there is much debate about what land uses and land covers it is replacing, and what are the associated environmental and social impacts. Some argue sugarcane is mainly replacing cattle pasture, thus having minimal impacts on native vegetation and small-scale family farming. In contrast, others claim sugarcane is replacing cropland traditionally under soybeans, rice, beans, and corn. Thus, food security is negatively affected and small-scale family farming livelihoods and culture are threatened. This is a proof-of-concept paper illustrating methods contributing toward the resolution of such debates. First we map land use and cover change in areas undergoing sugarcane expansion using satellite data from MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer); second, we test the hypothesis that sugarcane is replacing traditional annual crops using intensity analysis, via a case study of land change in the municipality of Pedro Afonso, Tocantins in northern Brazil between the 2008–2013 crop years. Maps matched reference data with overall agreements between 87–91%. Intensity analysis confirmed sugarcane is replacing annual crops much more than cattle pasture and other land uses and covers, pointing to particular economic and social processes driving land change.