基质固相分散-加压溶剂萃取法测定土壤中多环芳烃

建立基质固相分散(MSPD)辅助加压溶剂萃取(PLE)-高效液相色谱法测定土壤中16种多环芳烃的方法.土壤样品与弗罗里硅土混匀后装入萃取池,在15 MPa、120℃萃取条件下,丙酮∶二氯甲烷(1∶1,V∶V)作为萃取溶剂,静态提取5min,应用高效液相色谱法荧光检测-二极管阵列检测串联,采用外标法对其进行定量分析.结果表明:16种多环芳烃线性关系良好,相关系数均大于0.9994,利用荧光检测器与二极管阵列检测器的方法检出限分别为0.04—0.8μg·L-1、0.6—20μg·L-1,在低、中、高3个水平下的加标回收率在78.4%—105.8%范围内,测定结果的相对标准偏差为1.2%—4.1%(n=5).     

土壤中痕量氯代苯胺的MAE-SPME-GC/QQQ测定

建立了微波辅助萃取-固相微萃取-气相色谱/三重四极质谱法(MAE-SPME-GC/QQQ)同时测定土壤中多种氯代苯胺的方法.优化了多反应监测(MRM)的仪器条件,研究了微波萃取温度、保持时间、溶剂体积对萃取效果的影响,确定最佳实验条件为4 g土壤样品加入30 m L水,在100℃下微波萃取5 min.各目标物的线性范围为0.005—20μg·L-1,方法检出限为0.003—0.4 ng·g-1.测定0.5 ng·g-1和5 ng·g-1加标土壤样品,回收率为38.6%—116.4%和24.8%—82.0%,相对标准偏差为3.2%—27.7%和12.5%—22.7%(n=7).方法综合了MAE快速高效、SPME富集浓缩以及GC/QQQ抗干扰强的优势,适合于非高有机质含量土壤中氯代苯胺类残留的快速痕量分析.     

猪场废水灌溉对地下水中氮素的影响

应用猪场废水处理工程中产出的厌氧水不同灌溉量和3个处理阶段V（出水）∶V（地下水）=1∶5混合对冬小麦-夏玉米轮作系统连续进行3年小区灌溉试验,地下水中总氮、铵态氮、硝态氮和亚硝态氮等指标的监测结果表明：（1）厌氧水不同灌溉量条件下地下水中4种氮素含量总体呈现高量厌氧水（Ha）〉中量厌氧水（Ma）〉低量厌氧水（La）的变化趋势;（2）混水灌溉处理地下水中4种氮素含量均呈V（原水）∶V（地下水）=1∶5混合（Tog）〉V（厌氧水）∶V（地下水）=1∶5混合（Tag）〉V（仿生态塘水）∶V（地下水）=1∶5混合（Teg）的变化趋势。文章的研究能够为制定合理的猪场灌溉制度提供数据支撑。     

气相色谱-质谱联用法同时测定污水中对羟基苯甲酸酯和甾体雌激素

利用气相色谱-质谱联用仪(GC-MS),结合固相萃取技术,建立了同时测定污水中7种对羟基苯甲酸酯和5种甾体雌激素的定量分析方法.结果表明,目标物在40℃衍生化反应60 min可达最佳衍生化效果;最佳萃取剂净化条件为:使用HC-C18型SPE柱,p H=7条件下萃取,洗脱液为乙酸乙酯∶丙酮(1∶1,V∶V).该方法检出限(LOD)为1.8—5.7 ng·L-1,线性范围20—2000 ng·L-1(r0.990),除少量目标物回收率稍高外,大部分目标物的回收率为82.2%—128.5%,相对标准偏差介于4.4%—21.2%之间.     

混酸微波辅助萃取ICP-MS测定不同性质土壤中的重金属元素

比较了硝酸(HNO3)、硝酸-盐酸(HNO3∶HCl=3∶1)、硝酸-盐酸-双氧水(HNO3∶HCl∶H2O2=3∶1∶1)和硝酸-盐酸-高氯酸(HNO3∶HCl∶HCl O4=3∶1∶1)等4种消解液对土壤中铅(Pb)、镉(Cd)、砷(As)、铬(Cr)、镍(Ni)、铜(Cu)和锌(Zn)等7种重金属元素的萃取效率.结果表明,硝酸-盐酸-高氯酸混合液的萃取效果最好,硝酸-盐酸混合液次之.通过对6种土壤标准物质的分析发现,除了Cr之外,其他重金属元素在土壤中的混酸微波可提取态含量与总含量接近.土壤中的Cr有一部分是以铬铁矿的形式存在,在环境中相对较为稳定,采用混酸微波可提取态的Cr来评估其对环境的危害能够获得更加准确的结果.重金属与土壤的结合强弱与成土母质相关,冲积母质的土壤中Pb、Zn和Cu的结合较强,萃取相对较难,Cd、Ni和As与土壤的结合强弱则与成土母质关系不大.采用最优的消解液萃取矿区河流底泥和土壤中的重金属,ICP-MS分析结果表明,底泥中重金属含量较高,应为尾砂冲积而成,矿区周边的土壤也受到不同程度重金属的污染.     

水中痕量亚当氏剂和二苯胺的固相微萃取方法研究

研究了固相微萃取(SPME)-高效液相色谱(HPLC)测定水样中痕量亚当氏剂和二苯胺的分析方法.对SPME的条件如萃取纤维、萃取时间、萃取温度、离子强度、解吸方式、解吸溶剂、解吸时间进行了优化,并用于地下水等实际水样的分析.SPME优化的条件为:选用60μmPDMS/DVB萃取纤维在室温25℃下直接萃取60min,磁力搅拌速度为1100r.min-1,然后萃取纤维在解吸室内静态解吸9min后进行HPLC分析.液相色谱分离条件为ZORBAXSBC18柱(4.6mmi.d.×250mm,5.0μm),流动相为甲醇-水(70:30,V/V),流速为1.0ml.min-1,二极管阵列检测器波长为280nm.方法线性范围为0.005mg.l-1—0.5mg.l-1(R>0.99),两种物质的检出限(S/N=3)分别为0.003mg.l-1和0.002mg.l-1.加标回收率分别在89.6%—100.4%和97.5%—100.1%(n=5)之间,相对平均标准偏差(RSD)分别在4.5%—6.2%和3.8%—6.7%之间.该方法快速、简便,无需使用有机溶剂,适于水样中痕量物质的分析.     

微波辅助萃取-气相色谱法检测裙带菜中的多氯联苯和有机氯农药残留

建立微波辅助萃取-气相色谱法同时检测裙带菜中多氯联苯和有机氯农药残留的方法.裙带菜风干、粉碎后,采用微波辅助萃取仪提取粗提液,经净化、脱酸、脱水、浓缩后,用气相色谱-电子捕获检测器进行分析检测.结果表明,本方法多氯联苯和有机氯农药的检出限分别在0.008—0.044 ng.g-1和0.029—0.273 ng.g-1之间,各组分线性相关系数均大于0.996,加标回收率为72%—131%,相对标准偏差在2%—16%之间(n=3).因此,本方法具有节省时间、减少污染、操作简单便捷等特点,可用于裙带菜等海洋藻类中多氯联苯和有机氯农药残留量的检测.     

超声提取-分散液相微萃取-气相色谱质谱法测定大气PM_(2.5)中15种邻苯二甲酸酯

建立了超声提取-分散液相微萃取联合气相色谱质谱法测定大气PM_(2.5)中15种邻苯二甲酸酯的方法.样品经过二氯甲烷和丙酮(1∶1,V/V)提取后,以1,2-二氯苯为萃取剂、丙酮为分散剂,运用分散液相微萃取法进一步萃取大气颗粒物PM_(2.5)中的邻苯二甲酸酯.结果显示,方法检出限为0.29—4.77 pg·m-3,最低检出限为0.96—15.74 pg·m~(-3),加标回收率为72.7%—110.9%,相对标准偏差为0.6%—9.4%,将此方法应用于苏州市某区大气PM_(2.5)中的邻苯二甲酸酯的测定,检测出大部分邻苯二甲酸酯.     

固相萃取-高效液相色谱法检测土壤中新型烟碱类杀虫剂哌虫啶

应用Sampli Q SPE-C18固相萃取小柱净化处理,利用高效液相色谱-紫外检测器(HPLC-UV)检测,建立了土壤样品中新型烟碱类杀虫剂哌虫啶的残留测定方法.优化了哌虫啶的分析条件,以选用乙腈/水比例为40∶60(V/V)作为流动相,流速为1.0 m L·min-1,采用HPLC-UV在359 nm处检测,哌虫啶的两个峰保留时间分别为4.251 min和6.526 min.在0.5×10-9—2.5×10-7g范围内,哌虫啶的进样量与色谱峰面积呈良好线性关系,相关系数为0.9993,哌虫啶的最小检出量为2.5×10-10g.土壤样品用色谱纯乙腈提取,由SPE-C18固相萃取小柱净化后.哌虫啶在土壤中的平均添加回收率为81.73%—89.05%,变异系数为3.59%—5.25%,哌虫啶最低检测浓度为2.5×10-3mg·kg-1.该分析方法灵敏、准确、操作简便,节约溶剂,对环境污染小,适合土壤中低浓度哌虫啶的残留检测     

高效液相色谱法同时测定青菜中环丙氨嗪和三聚氰胺残留

研究并建立了同时测定青菜中环丙氨嗪和三聚氰胺残留量的高效液相色谱紫外检测分析方法。冷冻干燥并均质后的青菜样品经V（氨水）：V（甲醇）=5：95的混合溶液超声辅助浸提、离心、旋转蒸发、固相萃取等浓缩净化处理后,用高效液相色谱定量。分离色谱柱为AgilentNH：柱,流动相为矿（乙腈）：V（水）=90：10的混合溶液,流速为1mL·min-1,检测波长为214nm。环丙氨嗪和三聚氰胺的标准曲线在0．05～10．0mg·L-1范围内与其峰面积线性良好,相关系数不低于0．9995,在0．2～4．0mg.kg-1添加范围内,环丙氨嗪和三聚氰胺的平均回收率分别为81．26％～87．69％和78．24％～82．33％,相对标准偏差分别为2．75％～6．18％和3．99％～6．67％,方法的最低检测浓度分别为11．30和20．38μg·k-1。该方法操作简单且灵敏度高,适用于青菜样品中环丙氨嗪和三聚氰胺残留检测。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Importance of greater interdisciplinarity and geographic scope when tackling the driving forces behind biological invasions

Invasive non-native species are important drivers of ecosystem change, yet the driving forces of biological invasions themselves are poorly understood. Such information is essential to ensure policies focus on the most relevant drivers, and that future scenarios capture the full range of potential outcomes for invasive non-native species. I carried out a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2000 to 2020 that address either invasive non-native species or biodiversity and ecosystem services and that also mention 1 or more drivers of ecosystem change. I examined 5 indirect drivers (demographic, economic, governance, sociocultural, and technological) and 6 direct drivers (climate change, invasive non-native species, land-use or sea-use change, natural hazards, pollution, and resource extraction). Using the Web of Science core collection of citation indexes, I undertook searches of article titles and keywords and retrieved 27,462 articles addressing invasive non-native species and 110,087 articles dealing with biodiversity or ecosystem services. Most research to date on biological invasions as well as on biodiversity and ecosystem services has focused on anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem change rather than indirect drivers. Yet currently, less than 18% of articles addressing biological invasions examined drivers of ecosystem change, a similar level to that found over 20 years ago for biodiversity or ecosystem services. Knowledge of the drivers of biological invasions is limited, emphasizes tractable drivers over those that require an interdisciplinary approach, and is biased toward developed economies. Drivers generally deemed important for biological invasions, such as governance and resource extraction, accounted for less than 2% of research effort. The absence of a systematic understanding of the forces that drive invasive non-native species and how they interact means that attempts to mitigate or forecast biological invasions are likely to fail. To address biological invasions requires a much better orientation of national and international research on drivers in relation to both their actual importance as well as their policy relevance.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Mitigating the effects of climate change on the nests of sea turtles with artificial irrigation

For sea turtles, like many oviparous species, increasing temperatures during development threaten to increase embryonic mortality, alter offspring quality, and potentially create suboptimal primary sex ratios. Various methods are being implemented to mitigate the effects of climate change on reproductive success, but these methods, such as breeding programs, translocations, and shading, are often invasive and expensive. Irrigation is an alternative strategy for cooling nests that, depending on location, can be implemented relatively quickly and cheaply. However, multiple factors, including ambient conditions, nest substrate, and species characteristics, can influence irrigation success. Additionally, irrigation can vary in duration, frequency, and the volume of water applied to nests, which influences the cooling achieved and embryonic survival. Thus, it is critical to understand how to maximize cooling and manage risks before implementing irrigation as a nest-cooling strategy. We reviewed the literature on nest irrigation to examine whether artificial irrigation is feasible as a population management tool. Key factors that affected cooling were the volume of water applied and the frequency of applications. Embryonic responses varied with species, ambient conditions, and the timing of irrigation during development. Nest inundation was the key risk to a successful irrigation regime. Future irrigation regimes must identify clear targets, either primary or adult sex ratios, that maximize population viability. Monitoring population responses and adjusting the irrigation regime in response to population characteristics will be critical. Most studies reported on the manipulation of only one or two variables, further research is required to understand how altering multiple factors in an irrigation regime influences the cooling achieved and embryonic responses.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Positive and Negative Effects of a Threatened Parrotfish on Reef Ecosystems

Species that are strong interactors play disproportionately important roles in the dynamics of natural ecosystems. It has been proposed that their presence is necessary for positively shaping the structure and functioning of ecosystems. We evaluated this hypothesis using the case of the world's largest parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), a globally imperiled species. We used direct observation, animal tracking, and computer simulations to examine the diverse routes through which B. muricatum affects the diversity, dispersal, relative abundance, and survival of the corals that comprise the foundation of reef ecosystems. Our results suggest that this species can influence reef building corals in both positive and negative ways. Field observation and simulation outputs indicated that B. muricatum reduced the abundance of macroalgae that can outcompete corals, but they also feed directly on corals, decreasing coral abundance, diversity, and colony size. B. muricatum appeared to facilitate coral advancement by mechanically dispersing coral fragments and opening up bare space for coral settlement, but they also damaged adult corals and remobilized a large volume of potentially stressful carbonate sediment. The impacts this species has on reefs appears to be regulated in part by its abundance—the effects of B. muricatum were more intense in simulation scenarios populated with high densities of these fish. Observations conducted in regions with high and low predator (e.g., sharks) abundance generated results that are consistent with the hypothesis that these predators of B. muricatum may play a role in governing their abundance; thus, predation may modulate the intensity of the effects they have on reef dynamics. Overall our results illustrate that functionally unique and threatened species may not have universally positive impacts on ecosystems and that it may be necessary for environmental managers to consider the diverse effects of such species and the forces that mediate the strength of their influence. Efectos Positivos y Negativos de un Pez Loro Amenazado Sobre Ecosistemas Arrecifales     

Form-specific fragances fromOphrys insectifera L. (Orchidaceae) attract species of different pollinator genera. Evidence of sympatric speciation?

Two closely related forms ofOphrys insectifera were observed in the field to attract different pollinator species selectively.O. i. ssp.insectifera attracted males of two species ofArgogorytes (Sphecidae, Hymenoptera Aculeata) andO. i. ssp.aymoninii attractedAndrena combinata males (Andrenidae, Apoidea, Hymenoptera Aculeata). A third form,O. aff.i. ssp.insectifera, attracted none of these three species. Volatile compounds from flowers and inflorescences of the three forms (originating from Öland, Sweden, and Aveyron, France) were collected, using entrainment, enfleurage, and solvent extraction techniques, and identified by gas chromatography — mass spectrometry. Scent differences between the three forms were confirmed in the amounts of aliphatic hydrocarbons (C₁₁–C₁₉), methyl esters (C₁₄–C₁₈), short chain aliphatic 1-alcohols (C₆–C₁₂), and monoterpene alcohols (C₁₀).     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.