活性污泥生物炭对沉积物中镉生态毒性的影响

为评价沉积物中生物炭对重金属Cd生态毒性的影响,以底栖动物铜锈环棱螺(Bellamya aeruginosa)为测试生物,采用14-d亚慢性沉积物生物测试研究了不同添加水平的活性污泥生物炭与不同浓度Cd联合作用对Cd的生物积累、肝胰脏细胞DNA损伤以及超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)和丙二醛(MDA)的影响。结果表明,活性污泥生物炭可以显著降低间隙水中Cd含量。当沉积物w(Cd)较低(10μg·g~(-1))时,添加生物炭并不显著降低Cd的生物积累,当沉积物w(Cd)较高(50μg·g~(-1))时,只有w=5%的生物炭才能显著降低Cd的生物积累。活性污泥生物炭对铜锈环棱螺不具有毒性。添加生物炭后,低Cd处理组DNA损伤指数、SOD活性和MDA含量均没有显著改变,提示低Cd沉积物中添加生物炭不影响Cd毒性。就高Cd处理组而言,添加w=1%生物炭也不影响Cd毒性,当添加w=5%生物炭时,DNA损伤显著降低,SOD活性明显升高,MDA含量显著下降,Cd毒性下降约60%。因此,沉积物中Cd生物有效性的降低并不必然导致Cd在铜锈环棱螺体内生物积累的减少。沉积物中较高比例的生物炭通过对Cd的吸附阻控在一定程度上减少了生物积累,从而可以有效地降低毒性。生物炭对沉积物中污染物生态毒性的影响与污染物的种类和浓度以及生物炭用量有关。     

沉积物中2,2'',4,4''-四溴联苯醚(BDE-47)在铜锈环棱螺体内的毒代动力学及其繁殖毒性

多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)是一种全球性的新型持久性有毒污染物,沉积物中高浓度的PBDEs是水生态系统的巨大风险源,2,2’,4,4’-四溴联苯醚(BDE-47)在PBDEs同系物中,目前分布最广,生物毒性最强。为评价沉积物中BDE-47向底栖动物体内转移的潜力及其对底栖动物的潜在繁殖毒性,将实验室培养的铜锈环棱螺(Bellamya aeruginosa)暴露于BDE-47加标沉积物中,研究了BDE-47在铜锈环棱螺体内的毒代动力学特性及其对铜锈环棱螺潜在繁殖力的影响。结果表明,铜锈环棱螺对沉积物中BDE-47吸收较快,代谢速度相对较慢,BDE-47在铜锈环棱螺体内具有较强的生物积累性。生物积累达理论平衡时,铜锈环棱螺体内BDE-47浓度为1440.67ng·g-1(以样品干质量计)。BDE-47在铜锈环棱螺体内的生物积累和生物净化过程较好地符合一级动力学模型,摄入速率常数、清除速率常数和生物-沉积物累积因子分别为0.10、0.038和2.75,生物半衰期为18d。铜锈环棱螺体内BDE-47达到90%稳定状态所需的理论时间约为60d。低浓度BDE-47(160ng·g-1)暴露对铜锈环棱螺的潜在繁殖力没有影响,但当浓度≥640ng·g-1时,铜锈环棱螺的繁殖力下降50%,这表明BDE-47对铜锈环棱螺具有繁殖毒性。铜锈环棱螺可作为指示沉积物中底栖生物长期暴露于BDE-47的良好检测模型。     

沉积物中2,2′,4,4′-四溴联苯醚(BDE-47)在铜锈环棱螺体内的毒代动力学及其繁殖毒性

多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)是一种全球性的新型持久性有毒污染物,沉积物中高浓度的PBDEs是水生态系统的巨大风险源,2,2′,4,4′-四溴联苯醚(BDE-47)在PBDEs同系物中,目前分布最广,生物毒性最强.为评价沉积物中BDE-47向底栖动物体内转移的潜力及其对底栖动物的潜在繁殖毒性,将实验室培养的铜锈环棱螺(Bellamya aeruginosa)暴露于BDE-47加标沉积物中,研究了BDE-47在铜锈环棱螺体内的毒代动力学特性及其对铜锈环棱螺潜在繁殖力的影响.结果表明,铜锈环棱螺对沉积物中BDE-47吸收较快,代谢速度相对较慢,BDE-47在铜锈环棱螺体内具有较强的生物积累性.生物积累达理论平衡时,铜锈环棱螺体内BDE-47浓度为1 440.67 ng·g-1(以样品于质量计).BDE-47在铜锈环棱螺体内的生物积累和生物净化过程较好地符合一级动力学模型,摄人速率常数、清除速率常数和生物-沉积物累积因子分别为0.10、0.038和2.75,生物半衰期为18d.铜锈环棱螺体内BDE-47达到90％稳定状态所需的理论时间约为60d.低浓度BDE-47(160 ng· g-1)暴露对铜锈环棱螺的潜在繁殖力没有影响,但当浓度≥640 ng·g-1时,铜锈环棱螺的繁殖力下降50％,这表明BDE-47对铜锈环棱螺具有繁殖毒性.铜锈环棱螺可作为指示沉积物中底栖生物长期暴露于BDE-47的良好检测模型.     

腐殖酸作用下沉积物中纳米氧化铜对铜锈环棱螺生态毒性的影响

为了探讨不同水平腐殖酸作用下沉积物中纳米氧化铜(CuO-NPs)对底栖生物生态毒理学效应的影响,以铜锈环棱螺(Bellamya aeruginosa)为受试生物,通过腐殖酸和CuO-NPs加标沉积物的慢性(28 d)生物测试,研究了肝胰脏中Cu的生物积累、Na+K+-ATP酶(ATPase)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)以及过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性的变化规律.结果表明,在低浓度CuO-NPs处理组(60 μg·g1),沉积物中腐殖酸水平对Cu的生物积累以及ATPase、SOD和CAT活性均没有显著影响.在中、高浓度CuO-NPs处理组(≥180 μg·g-1),Cu的生物积累均随腐殖酸水平的增加而显著升高;肝胰脏ATPase活性随腐殖酸水平的增加而显著下降;当腐殖酸水平为0.05 g·g-1时,SOD活性显著高于未添加腐殖酸组,表现为显著诱导,当腐殖酸水平≥0.1g·g-1时,SOD活性开始下降,并具有浓度依赖性;随腐殖酸水平的增加,肝胰脏CAT活性总体上表现为浓度依赖性显著下降.由于沉积物中腐殖酸的存在,显著增加CuO-NPs在沉积物中的分散稳定性,更容易被铜锈环棱螺摄取,从而通过增加CuO-NPs的生物积累而增强对铜锈环棱螺的生态毒性.     

太湖北部表层沉积物重金属污染及其生物毒性研究

在分析太湖北部梅梁湾、竺山湾和贡湖表层沉积物和野生铜锈环棱螺体内重金属残留水平基础上,利用潜在生态危害指数法评价了区域重金属污染的潜在生态风险,并利用综合污染指数法评价了野生铜锈环棱螺受重金属污染的状况。研究结果表明,3个区域表层沉积物孔隙水的生物综合毒性处于低毒到中毒水平,而表层沉积物重金属污染均处于较低的生态风险,但3个区域的野生铜锈环棱螺体内重金属的综合污染指数处于中度到重度的污染水平。由此可以得出太湖北部沉积物重金属污染对底栖生物仍具有一定的潜在生态风险。     

纳米Al_2O_3和Cd联合暴露对铜锈环棱螺体内Cd的生物积累和抗氧化酶活性的影响

金属氧化物纳米颗粒的广泛应用导致它们大量地释放到水环境中,其独特的理化性质有可能改变水环境中其他共存污染物(如重金属)的生态毒性。为评价沉积物中纳米氧化铝(Al2O3-NPs)对重金属Cd生态毒性的影响,采用底栖生物慢性暴露研究了Al2O3-NPs存在条件下Cd在底栖动物铜锈环棱螺体内生物积累的变化和Cd对肝胰脏抗氧化防御系统关键成分超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)与脂质过氧化指标丙二醛(MDA)以及Ⅱ相反应的关键酶谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(GST)的影响。结果表明,低Cd浓度(5μg·g-1)时,Al2O3-NPs对Cd生物积累没有影响;中、高Cd浓度(25、100μg·g-1)时,Al2O3-NPs显著促进Cd的生物积累,Al2O3-NPs对Cd的生物转运具有明显的携带效应。低Cd浓度时,无Al2O3-NPs处理组和Al2O3-NPs处理组的SOD活性与对照组相比均没有显著差异;中Cd浓度时,SOD活性显著升高,而高Cd浓度时,SOD活性显著下降,而且Al2O3-NPs处理组的SOD活性显著低于无Al2O3-NPs处理组,Al2O3-NPs的存在加重了Cd对肝胰脏细胞的氧化胁迫或损伤。高Cd浓度时,无Al2O3-NPs处理组和Al2O3-NPs处理组的MDA水平均显著升高,但Al2O3-NPs处理组的MDA水平显著低于无Al2O3-NPs处理组,进一步证明Al2O3-NPs对Cd氧化损伤的增强作用。中、高Cd浓度时,无Al2O3-NPs处理组和Al2O3-NPs处理组的GST活性均显著下降,但Al2O3-NPs处理组的GST活性均显著低于无Al2O3-NPs处理组,同样说明了Al2O3-NPs对Cd毒性的增强作用。本研究提供了在沉积物-底栖动物体系中Al2O3-NPs促进重金属生物积累的证据,而且Cd毒性的变化与肝胰脏中Cd的生物积累水平的变化基本一致,在中、高Cd浓度下,由于Al2O3-NPs的存在显著促进了Cd的生物积累,因而增强了Cd对铜锈环棱螺的生态毒性。     

生物炭对重金属污染沉积物的修复效果

采用1%、2%和5%的生物炭钝化污染沉积物中的重金属,并研究生物炭修复对水体的生态影响.结果表明,生物炭添加后水体的p H值显著增大,上覆水和间隙水中溶解态Cu、Zn和Cd浓度均显著降低.1%(W/W)生物炭添加量使上覆水中溶解态Cu比对照降低了82.4%;在不同添加量下间隙水溶解态Zn降低幅度为11.7%—62.8%.通过BCR重金属形态分级发现沉积物中酸溶态重金属均有向残渣态转化的趋势.在5%生物炭添加量时,酸溶态Cu降低了73.08 mg·kg-1,降低幅度达到32.1%,而可氧化态Pb增加幅度达到67.8%.通过生物可利用实验(PBET)发现,当生物炭添加量为5%时,生物可利用性Cu降低9.8%,Zn、Pb和Cd的生物可利用性也有不同程度降低.生物炭添加到沉积物后,用于植物毒性试验的家独行菜(Lepidium sativum)茎长呈现19.5%—25.7%的增加,根长也随之增加,说明生物炭降低了沉积物重金属的植物毒性.     

铜胁迫对铜锈环棱螺致死率、富集性、CAT和SOD的影响

以浙江省温州市瓯海茶山某河内的铜锈环棱螺(Bellamya aeruginosa)为研究对象,研究了铜胁迫下铜对铜锈环棱螺的致死效应、铜锈环棱螺对铜的富集性、铜对铜锈环棱螺肝胰腺过氧化氢酶(CAT)和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性的影响。结果表明,铜锈环棱螺对较低浓度Cu2+(1.0、2.0 mg.L-1)具有一定的抵抗能力,而在较高浓度Cu2+(4.0～8.0 mg.L-1)胁迫下,则出现较高的死亡率。当ρ(Cu2+)为0.2～0.8 mg.L-1时,随着染毒时间的增加和染毒剂量的加大,铜锈环棱螺对铜的富集性也在增强,但当ρ(Cu2+)为1.6 mg.L-1时,铜锈环棱螺对铜的富集量却随染毒时间的增加而呈下降趋势。在铜胁迫下,铜锈环棱螺肝胰腺CAT和SOD活性受到较大影响。     

湖南湘江铜锈环棱螺中5种重金属元素富集和分布特征

为了探讨湘江水体生态系统重金属污染的生态风险,研究了Pb、Cd、Zn、Mn、Cu在7个江段的铜锈环棱螺器官的积累和分布特征,用金属污染指数评价了重金属生态风险.结果表明:湘江中游铜锈环棱螺各器官中重金属元素的含量差异明显,Pb富集于壳,Cd主要富集于内脏团和外套膜,Zn、Cu含量各部位相对稳定,Mn含量无规律;7个采样点铜锈环棱螺的Pb、Cd、Zn、Mn、Cu的平均富集系数为0.19、7.51、5.64、0.74、11.22,铜锈环棱螺对Zn、Cd、Cu的富集作用明显;铜锈环棱螺可作为水域Zn、Cd、Cu污染的生物修复物种或指示生物物种.金属污染指数显示,松柏镇、霞流镇和霞湾江段存在着较为严重的污染.因此,湘江中游污染治理中应重点关注松柏镇、霞流镇、霞湾等位置污染情况,以期减少对该流域人民的生活、生产与健康的危害.     

锌、镉复合暴露对铜锈环棱螺内脏抗氧化酶活性和丙二醛含量的影响

本实验以铜锈环棱螺为测试生物,在Zn、Cd复合暴露10d、30d后,研究Zn、Cd在铜锈环棱螺内脏团中的积累以及对生物体内脏团抗氧化酶活性的影响.结果表明,Zn-Cd复合暴露下,铜锈环棱螺对Zn吸收呈抑制作用,对Cd的吸收有促进作用,说明Zn、Cd之间可能存在拮抗关系.Zn-Cd不同浓度复合,10d暴露下,SOD呈先增高、后降低的变化,CAT活性明显下降;30d后,CAT活性与SOD活性的变化趋势一致.MDA含量在暴露30d后,其含量达到4.86(nmol·mg-1pr).暴露10d时,GST活性没有受到显著诱导,暴露时间延长到30d时,各浓度组显示抑制作用,其中高浓度组抑制作用达到最大.另外,Zn-Cd复合暴露,10dSOD较为敏感,而30dCAT较为敏感,可作为水生生态系统中长期暴露的一种生物检测指标.     

Absolute configuration of the major sex pheromone component of the satin moth, Leucoma salicis, verified by field trapping test in Hungary

Summary. Male satin moths, Leucoma (Stilpnotia) salicis L. (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) were attracted only to (3Z,6R,7S,9R,10S)-isomer out of the four (3Z)-cis-6,7-cis-9,10-diepoxy-3-henicosenes (leucomalure). This was demonstrated by field trapping test with a bivoltine population in a mixed poplar-willow forest along the flood area of the river Danube at Adony, Hungary.     

Characterization of the benthic vegetation in the Farwà Lagoon (Libya)

This study forms part of the Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Vegetation in the Mediterranean SEa (United Nation Environmental Program). It was carried out in June 2000 in the Farwà Lagoon, Libya. The mapping of the main benthic vegetation was achieved by compiling the field observations (transect method), and remote sensing of SPOT satellite images. The phytobenthos in the Farwà lagoon covers an area of 1820 ha (65%). Three benthic macrophyte species dominate, namely the marine phanerogamsCymodocea nodosa andPosidonia oceanica, and the algaCaulerpa prolifera. DeadPosidonia oceanica leaves (litter) form veritable mounds in the vicinity of the openings leading to open sea. These leaves, which come from the coastal sea, are brought into the lagoon by currents and tides; their decomposition will lead to high oxygen consumption and the release of hydrogen sulphide. The phenological data ofPosidonia oceanica shoots sampled in the lagoon are similar to those from other stations in the Mediterranean. Conversely, the lepidochronological parameters of shoots sampled in the central part of the lagoon exhibit values that are substantially higher than those generally recorded in the Mediterranean. The mean number of leaves produced annually is 9.9 (mean value for the Mediterranean: 7.5) and the rhizome growth rate is of 35.7 mm.yr⁻¹ (mean value for the Mediterranean: 7.5 mm.yr⁻¹). This hypersaline environment would seem to provide optimum growth conditions for the speciesPosidonia oceanica.     

Volatiles of the honey bee larva initiate oogenesis in the parasitic mite Varroa destructor

Summary. Varroa reproduction is closely synchronized to the development of its host. In this study we present a new bioassay for field and laboratory tests to evaluate host factors triggering Varroa oogenesis. Female mites deprived of feeding activated oogenesis when perceiving larval volatiles. In laboratory assays the living L5-larva and pentane extracts of the larval cuticle had a clear activating effect. Wax and larval food did not elicit Varroa oogenesis. The activating components apparently are in the polar fraction of the cuticular volatiles. The consequences of this regulative mechanism for the host parasite relationship and prospects for further research are discussed.     

High genetic diversity of the symbiotic dinoflagellates in the coral Pocillopora meandrina from the South Pacific

Symbioses between dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium (commonly referred to as zooxanthellae) and scleractinian corals are an essential feature for the maintenance of coral reefs. The fine-scale diversity and population structure of the zooxanthellae inhabiting the coral Pocillopora meandrina, a major reef building species in Polynesia, was examined. We used two polymorphic microsatellites to study seven populations from the South Pacific, whose host structuring has been previously investigated. The symbionts of P. meandrina showed high levels of diversity, with more than one zooxanthella genotype being identified in most of the host individuals. Genetic differentiation between symbiont populations was detected at a large scale (2,000 km) between the Tonga and the Society Archipelagos. Within the Society Archipelago, the two most remote populations (Tahiti and Bora-Bora; 200 km apart) were only weakly differentiated from each other. Statistical tests demonstrated that the symbiont genetic structure was not correlated with that of its host, suggesting that dispersal of the symbionts, whether they are transported within a host larva or free in the water, depends mainly on distance and water currents. In addition, the data suggests that hosts may acquire new symbionts after maternal transmission, possibly following a disturbance event. Lastly, the weak differentiation between symbiont populations of P. verrucosa and P. meandrina, both from Moorea, indicated that there was some host-symbiont fine-scale specificity detectable at the genetic resolution offered by microsatellites.     

PVC塑料浸出液对3种海洋微藻光合作用及生长的影响

海洋微塑料作为一类新型环境污染物已经成为全球性环境问题。运用水样叶绿素荧光仪(Water-PAM)研究了不同浓度软聚氯乙烯(polyvinyl chloride, PVC)和硬PVC浸出液(0、50、100和200 g·L~(-1))胁迫下球等鞭金藻(Isochrysis galbana)、中肋骨条藻(Skeletonema costatum)和小球藻(Chlorella sp.)3种海洋微藻叶绿素荧光特性,包括PSⅡ最大量子产量(F_v/F_m)、PSⅡ实际量子产量(Yield)、光化学淬灭(qP)和PSⅡ最大相对电子传递速率(rETR_(max))的变化,同时检测微藻的生长状况。结果表明,球等鞭金藻(金藻门)和中肋骨条藻(硅藻门)的4项光合作用参数在软PVC浸出液胁迫的96 h内均显著下降,且随软PVC浸出液浓度增加,下降幅度增大,在实验后期(48～96 h)达到最小值,表现为抑制作用。96 h时,球等鞭金藻和中肋骨条藻的细胞密度均在软PVC浸出液200 g·L~(-1)处理组达到最小值,分别占对照组的3.20%和11.90%。硬PVC浸出液胁迫对球等鞭金藻和中肋骨条藻的4项光合作用参数具有显著影响(P<0.05),球等鞭金藻的4项参数均显著高于对照组。中肋骨条藻的相关光合作用参数均显著低于对照组。72 h时球等鞭金藻和中肋骨条藻的细胞密度分别在硬PVC浸出液100 g·L-1和200 g·L~(-1)处理组达到最小值,为对照组的67.90%和82.50%,表现为抑制作用。小球藻(绿藻门)的各光合作用参数和细胞密度在软PVC和硬PVC浸出液胁迫的96 h内未产生显著变化。该研究证实PVC浸出液对微藻光合系统具有干扰作用,对海洋生态系统具有潜在风险。     

Seasonal dynamics of macro-algae in the South Lake of Tunis

The macro-algae communities observed in the south lake of Tunis are characterized by the predominance of nitrophilous algae which are in the order of biomass importance:Ulva, Cladophora andEnteromorpha. We have noted seasonal changes of alga distribution. The wind appears to be one of the most important factors influencing this distribution. The total biomass reaches a maximum in the spring. Rapid decomposition of the biomass leads to a severe ecological imbalance, resulting in crises of anoxia and fish death. A restoration project has already started. It aims at removal of contaminated muds and the introduction of a new circulation system. The main objectives of this work were to collect information on the distribution and biomass of the phytobenthic communities as a first step in the constitution of a database for further comparison.     

Extension of twoCaulerpa species along the Tunisian coast

Two species of the green alga genusCaulerpa are considered as invasive in Tunisia:Caulerpa racemosa andC. taxifolia. C. racemosa is found in a many new localities at the central and southern Tunisian coast, and even in the North of the country in colder water. These new observations lead to the hypothesis of the multiplicity of the origins of the introduction of the species and suggest possible invasive potentialities. The general thallus, and more particularly the number, the shape as well as the arrangement of ramelli on fronds allowed us to identify four morphologically different groups. These groups could be either different systematic entities or polymorphic variations of the same taxon due to different ecological conditions.Caulerpa taxifolia was observed for the first time in Tunisia at the roadstead of Sousse in the beginning of the year 2000. It is recognized as identical to that found in the other Mediterranean localities (GenBank number AJ228960). Up to the end of March 2000, a submarine prospecting campaign revealed an affected area of about 350 ha in front of 2 km of coast. Colonies ofCaulerpa taxifolia disseminating in this area appear in isolated spots. form, In the growing stage, they form surfaces varying between 0.5 to 6 m² and located 20 to 100 m from each other. The total covered surface was estimated to be between 0.5 and 1 ha.     

Phototransformation and ecotoxicity of the drug Naproxen-Na

The phototransformation of naproxen Na in aqueous medium has been investigated. Irradiation of the drug in drinking water affords seven photoproducts. Three of them are dimeric photoproducts isolated for the first time. The compounds, isolated by chromatographic processes, have been identified by spectroscopic means. The toxicity of the photoproducts and the parent drug has been assayed on Daphnia magna and Vibrio fischeri. The results indicate that some photoproducts are more toxic than naproxen.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Benefits of trenching behavior in the context of an inducible defense

Summary. Many species of insects sabotage the pressurized defense vessels of their host plants prior to feeding. This behavior, however, does not render leaves indefinitely suitable, as some species employing this behavior eventually abandon uneaten portions of sabotaged leaves. In this study, we examined whether and to what degree wild parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, is capable of restoring its pressurized defenses and whether cabbage loopers, Trichoplusa ni, which normally trench parsnip leaflets, benefit from their trenching behavior. The pressurized oil tubes of parsnip leaves are rich in toxic terpenoids and furanocoumarins. A disruption of the integrity of the tubes (via razor blade nicks) in leaflets revealed that that some of their contents were expelled at the break and that some movement of oil from outside the leaflet (i.e., the midvein) occurred, bolstering furanocoumarin levels in the leaflet within minutes. Pressure and chemical content in a leaflet’s oil tubes were also shown to be restored within 24 hours of depressurization. This recovery ability allowed parsnip leaflets to respond to daily depressurizations by mechanical damage for up to at least 5 assaults, cumulatively causing an approximate ten-fold increase in furanocoumarins. Cabbage loopers fed parsnip leaflets that were artificially trenched accumulated twice as much body mass as larvae fed leaflets augmented with furanocoumarins equivalent to the quantity that would be avoided through trenching, indicating that trenching does benefit the herbivore. Although parsnip recovers from trenching rapidly, it does not do so within the time that cabbage loopers consume trenched leaflets