小流域土壤有机质和全磷空间变异分析——以安徽省舒城县龙潭小流域为例

为了解土壤的地域差异性,基于地统计学半方差函数理论和GIS空间克立格插值定量分析了安徽省舒城县龙潭小流域有机质、全磷的各向同性、各向异性变异特征及分布格局.结果表明,有机质、全磷的半方差拟合模型均为指数模型,两者的分布都显示了强烈的空间自相关,自相关距离分别为642 m、435 m.有机质、全磷变异的各向异性都比较显著,有机质在0°、50°方向上变异程度明显大于90°、145°方向;全磷则在0°、145°方向的变异程度更加突出.有机质、全磷的分布呈明显的块状和带状,其中有机质中部含量高,南部、西部含量低;全磷则是南部、西北含量高,西部、东北含量低.     

空间统计学模拟方法在城市重金属污染分析中的应用

城市土壤重金属污染是城市化后噬待解决的一个重要问题.传统的土壤重金属污染分析方法--克里格方法,通过满足未采样点局部方差最小而获得土壤污染状况预测结果,算法本身会给估值结果带来光滑作用,并只能提供未采样点的局部不确定性.文章提出利用空间统计学的模拟方法,对土壤重金属污染状况进行研究,通过获取多幅模拟结果之间的差异来揭示研究区域土壤重金属污染的整体空间分布形态.文章以上海某区域6种重金属(Cu、Pb、Cd、Cr、Hg和As)为研究对象,利用空间统计学模拟方法对其空间分布予以研究,给出每种重金属宅间分布模拟结果.最后,文章以研究区域上壤环境背景上限值为标准,给出研究区域不同土壤重金属空间分布相应级别的不确定性分析结果.     

污染场地土壤重金属空间异常值识别及其点源效应的分离

由点源污染导致的土壤重金属空间异常值的分布及点源效应的大小将影响场地风险评估和修复方案的制定,进而影响场地的环境管理.以某典型重金属污染场地为研究区域,以表层土壤Cd含量为研究对象,引入稳健变异函数模型,并筛选出合适的变异函数模型,结合平尾化方法对表层土壤Cd含量空间异常值进行识别和处理,并有效地分离出点源效应.研究表明：研究区表层土壤Cd含量空间变异大且存在明显的空间异常值;CressieHawkins稳健变异函数更适用于对研究区表层土壤Cd含量半方差函数的估计,采用稳健变异函数和平尾化方法能够有效地识别空间异常值和分离点源效应,空间异常值主要分布在受人为活动影响较大的区块;由于准点过程导致的变异较大,分离出的点源效应解释了异常值点位表层土壤Cd含量的大部分.     

基于县域尺度的稻田土壤碱解氮空间异质性研究

掌握土壤氮素的空间分异特征是实现养分优化管理的重要基础。以江苏省扬中市为研究区,基于田间采样的99个土壤碱解氮样本数据,运用地统计学与缓冲区分析方法,研究县域稻田土壤碱解氮的空间变异特征及其影响因素。结果表明,研究区土壤碱解氮平均含量为114.30 mg·kg~(-1),处于较丰富水平。半方差分析结果显示,土壤碱解氮空间分布具有中等程度的空间自相关性。空间插值结果显示,扬中市土壤碱解氮空间分布总体上呈斑块状,大致表现为中部高、两端低,高值区主要位于研究区中部3镇,在工业区与养殖基地附近均出现局部高值区。影响因素分析表明,城镇化、土壤质地、产业分布、农户经营等因子对研究区土壤碱解氮空间分布均具有较大影响。距离养殖合作社1 km以内区域的土壤碱解氮易于积累,工厂、企业对周边600 m范围内的土壤碱解氮含量影响显著(P0.05)。     

江西省兴国县土壤全氮和有机质的空间变异及其分布格局

在地理信息系统和地统计学的支持下，以变异函数为工具，初步分析了江西省兴国县土壤全氮和有机质的空间变异特征，并应用克立格法进行最优无偏线性插值，得出全氮和有机质含量的分布格局．结果表明：全氮的变异函数曲线的理论模型符合球状模型，有机质为指数模型；两种养分的空间自相关程度均属中等的空间自相关；全氮和有机质空间变异的尺度范围不同，分别为5．41km和9．36km．它们的空间变异主要是由结构性因素引起的；全氮和有机质含量的分布格局基本一致，具有北部高、中部和南部低的分布特征．图3表2参16     

平原典型垃圾焚烧厂周边土壤重金属分布特征及污染评价

随着固体废弃物的增加,垃圾焚烧逐步成为城市垃圾处理应用一个较为理想可行的选择。垃圾焚烧不仅可以回收能源,且相对其他处理方式其减量效果显著。垃圾焚烧厂排出的尾气中的某些特定重金属可以通过大气干湿沉降进入土壤。采用XRF 荧光光谱仪、岛津原子吸收分光光度计和测汞仪测定了杭嘉湖平原的嘉兴垃圾焚烧厂周边土壤重金属的含量,利用地统计学方法分析了该区域74个土壤样品中Cr、Mn、Cu、Pb、Fe五种重金属元素浓度的空间分布,并采用单因子指数法和内梅罗综合指数法对该地区土壤进行污染评价。结果表明：该垃圾焚烧厂周边表层土壤上述5种重金属平均含量依次为174.05、707.76、47.68、41.95、39057.89 mg·kg-1。表层富集因子分析表明表层土壤中Cu和Pb的含量受到人为影响。因子分析将5种重金属分成3类,并揭示了3类金属在该区域具有不同的空间分布特征,Cr、Mn、Fe以土壤地球化学作用（37.88%方差贡献）为主导影响因素,Cu、Pb分别以农药施用作用为主（22.06%）、垃圾焚烧源尾气排放（22.74%）为主导影响因素。污染评价结果表明该区域土壤重金属复合污染程度为轻度污染,最大污染贡献来自于Pb（单因子污染指数高达2.16）,厂区周边土壤中重金属存在累积效应,不容忽视。     

典型河谷城市土壤重金属含量空间分异及其影响因素

探析典型河谷城市土壤重金属空间污染特征及其影响因素,对城市污染防治具有重要意义。采集宝鸡市区62份表层土壤,使用电感耦合等离子体质谱仪(ICP-MS)测定8种重金属(As、Cd、Cr、Cu、Mn、Ni、Pb、Zn)含量,基于地统计空间插值与地理探测器方法,以地理、环境、气象等11种因子为自变量,各元素含量为因变量,探析典型河谷城市土壤重金属含量的空间分异及其影响因素。结果表明,宝鸡市区土壤8种重金属元素均超过陕西省土壤背景值,其中Cd和Zn质量分数均值达0.77、261.17 mg·kg~(-1),为陕西省土壤背景值的8.19倍和3.76倍;Cd、Zn、As、Cu污染较严重,其分布主要集中在潘家湾立交桥、滨河路及马家坡,在空间上呈现一定的聚集性;降水对Cd的空间分布影响最大,而其他重金属主要受海拔高程影响。降水因子对Cd空间分布具有最强解释力(因子解释力P_(D,H)达0.188),除Cd外,DEM(高程)对其余7种重金属含量空间分布均具有最强解释力;此外,交互作用的P_(D,H)值均高于单个因素,表明复杂的环境条件加剧了土壤中重金属的积累。重金属的空间分布差异显著,这与研究区的环境和气象条件密切相关。     

晋西黄土区林草复合界面雨后土壤水分空间变异规律研究

利用统计学方法对晋西黄土区林草复合系统界面上雨后表层（0～10 cm）、亚表层（10～20 cm）和20～40 cm土层土壤水分空间变异性进行研究。结果表明：草地、林地以及二者组成的林草界面的土壤水分含量、变异系数差别均不大,土壤水分含量随着深度的增加而减少,但土壤水分变异系数则相反;移动窗口法分析表明,林草界面对表层和亚表层的土壤水分影响范围均为4.0 m;草地土壤质量含水量的变异函数模型可以拟合成高斯模型,林地和林草界面则可以拟合球状模型,草地土壤水分总体空间异质性要大于林地和林草界面,草地土壤水分变异函数的平均变程为10.96 m,林草界面及林地土壤水分的平均变程分别为5.37 m和4.31 m。对于描述界面土壤水分分布情况,克立格制图直观性强,具有良好效果。     

猪场废水污灌土壤的Cr和Ni空间变异及积累分析

为了解长期施用猪场废水对农田土壤Cr和Ni(以下简称重金属)的影响,采集了河北省京安猪场周边农田清洁区和灌溉8年猪场废水的污灌区耕层(0～20cm)共52个土壤样品,并测定了样品中pH、养分及重金属全量和有效态含量,应用GIS结合地统计学方法对重金属进行了空间结构和分布特征分析,探讨规模化猪场周边农田土壤重金属积累的影响因子及其贡献。结果表明,Cr和Ni全量和有效态含量变异函数理论模型均符合球状模型,具有中等程度自相关。根据背景调查,重金属与pH值和土壤养分的相关性分析以及重金属变异函数分析,研究区土壤Cr和Ni主要受成土母质的影响,受污灌猪场废水影响不大。富集因子分析表明,污灌猪场废水对土壤Cr和Ni几乎没有积累。灌溉猪场废水会降低土壤pH值,提高土壤Cr和Ni有效态含量。     

三江平原地区农田土壤中几种重金属空间分布状况

以三江平原地区农田土壤为研究对象,基于网格法取样,运用经典统计学和地统计学方法对研究区域内土壤重金属As、Cr、Cu、Pb和Zn的空间分布特征进行研究。结果表明,三江平原地区5种土壤重金属具有较高的空间异质性,变异系数在30.67%~66.89%之间;As、Cr、Cu、Pb和Zn均具有较强的空间自相关性,空间自相关范围较广;As和Cr的块金值和基台值之比〔C0/(C0+C)〕25%,其空间变异主要由土壤母质、地形和气候等自然因素(结构性变异)引起,Cu、Pb和Zn的C0/(C0+C)为35.8%~43.2%,非结构性因素对Cu、Pb和Zn的影响较大;5种重金属元素的空间分布格局不同,土壤各重金属元素在小尺度范围内存在明显的空间变异,除Cu元素外,其他4种重金属元素在大尺度空间范围内均不具有明显的空间分布规律;采用普通克里格插值法得到三江平原地区表层土壤重金属的空间分布图,发现土壤重金属含量与土壤类型、土壤理化性质、土地利用方式以及矿山开采、农业机械化强度、农业灌溉关系密切。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere‐producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3‐fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4‐fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans‐Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic‐level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere. Globalización del Mercado de Cachemira y la Declinación de Mamíferos Mayores en Asia Central     

The lichen-rich coastal heath vegetation on the isle of Anholt, Denmark — conservation and management

The high conservational value of the lichen-rich vegetation and landscape of the marine foreland Ørkenen on the isle of Anholt is treated from a Danish as well as a European perspective. The sensitivity of the lichen-rich vegetation to physical disturbance is emphasized. The impact of invasive species such asPinus mugo as well as the effect of atmospheric deposition of nutrients on the heaths at Anholt is described. Considerations related to the development of a management plan for Ørkenen are presented.     

Behavior and ecology of Old World Luperini beetles of the genusAulacophora (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Summary The attraction of Old World leaf beetles in the genusAulacophora to kairomones and parakairomones which are effective lures for New WorldDiabrotica andAcalymma were investigated. Beetles captured on sticky traps baited with single and multicomponent lures were no different from the control traps for two species ofAulacophora. Yellow colored traps and squash blossoms are attractive toAulacophora beetles which detect sub-microgram quantities of cucurbitacins on silica gel. Leaf feeding behavior and flight activity data are correlated with varietal preference of threeAulacophora species. The common response byDiabrotica andAulacophora to cucurbitacins reinforces the two groups' coevolutionary association with the Cucurbitaceae. The apparent lack of a common response toCucurbita blossom volatiles suggests recent evolutionary pathways are substantially different for these two groups of beetles.     

Importance of greater interdisciplinarity and geographic scope when tackling the driving forces behind biological invasions

Invasive non-native species are important drivers of ecosystem change, yet the driving forces of biological invasions themselves are poorly understood. Such information is essential to ensure policies focus on the most relevant drivers, and that future scenarios capture the full range of potential outcomes for invasive non-native species. I carried out a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2000 to 2020 that address either invasive non-native species or biodiversity and ecosystem services and that also mention 1 or more drivers of ecosystem change. I examined 5 indirect drivers (demographic, economic, governance, sociocultural, and technological) and 6 direct drivers (climate change, invasive non-native species, land-use or sea-use change, natural hazards, pollution, and resource extraction). Using the Web of Science core collection of citation indexes, I undertook searches of article titles and keywords and retrieved 27,462 articles addressing invasive non-native species and 110,087 articles dealing with biodiversity or ecosystem services. Most research to date on biological invasions as well as on biodiversity and ecosystem services has focused on anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem change rather than indirect drivers. Yet currently, less than 18% of articles addressing biological invasions examined drivers of ecosystem change, a similar level to that found over 20 years ago for biodiversity or ecosystem services. Knowledge of the drivers of biological invasions is limited, emphasizes tractable drivers over those that require an interdisciplinary approach, and is biased toward developed economies. Drivers generally deemed important for biological invasions, such as governance and resource extraction, accounted for less than 2% of research effort. The absence of a systematic understanding of the forces that drive invasive non-native species and how they interact means that attempts to mitigate or forecast biological invasions are likely to fail. To address biological invasions requires a much better orientation of national and international research on drivers in relation to both their actual importance as well as their policy relevance.