不同类别农药助剂对蚯蚓(Eisenia foetida)的急性毒性

为评价农药助剂对土壤生物的毒性效应,分别采用滤纸接触法和人工土壤法测定了不同类别农药助剂对赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia foetida)的急性毒性。结果表明：19种非离子表面活性剂中,烷基酚聚氧乙烯醚与脂肪醇聚氧乙烯醚毒性较高,滤纸法48 h-LC₅₀为7.630～39.65 μg·cm^-2,人工土壤法14 d-LC₅₀为876.5～2786.6 mg·kg^-1,其它类型非离子表面活性剂毒性较低。5种阴离子表面活性剂中,十二烷基硫酸钠、十二烷基苯磺酸钙毒性高于木质素磺酸钠、木质素磺酸钙、亚甲基双萘磺酸钠,滤纸法48 h-LC₅₀为6.575～41.89 μg·cm^-2,人工土壤法14 d-LC₅₀为1195.0～1911.7 mg·kg^-1。13种溶剂中,二甲苯、乙苯、甲苯、正丁醇、环己酮表现出较高的毒性,滤纸法48 h-LC₅₀为6.587～57.62 μg·cm^-2,密封人工土壤法48 h-LC₅₀为181.9～781.5 mg·kg^-1。采用两种方法测得的5种填料高岭土、白炭黑、硅藻土、凹凸棒土和轻质碳酸钙的毒性均较低。由此可见,采用两种方法测得的毒性系统偏差接近,重现性均较好,并且滤纸接触法测得的毒力高于人工土壤法。     

肟菌酯对环境生物急性毒性及安全性评价

本试验通过研究肟菌酯对10种环境生物急性毒性效应,以期评价其对环境生物的毒性风险。结果表明,肟菌酯对日本鹌鹑(Coturnix coturnix japonica)的经口毒性7 d-LD50和短期饲喂毒性8 d-LC50分别大于2.00×103mg a.i.·kg-1bw和5.00×103mg a.i.·kg-1饲料,意大利蜜蜂(Apis mellifera L.)接触与经口毒性48 h-LD50分别为大于100μg a.i.·蜂-1和95.3μg a.i.·蜂-1,家蚕(Bombyx mori)96 h-LC50为1.61×103mg a.i.·L-1,蚯蚓(Eisenia foetida)14 d-LC50大于100 mg a.i.·kg-1干土,赤眼蜂(Trichogramma japonicum)24 h-LR50为0.337μg a.i.·cm-2,羊角月牙藻(Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata)72 h-EC50为5.80×10-3mg a.i.·L-1,大型溞(Daphnia magna Straus)48 h-EC50为1.72×10-2mg a.i.·L-1,斑马鱼(Brachydanio rerio)96 h-LC50为5.40×10-2mg a.i.·L-1,非洲爪蟾(Xenopus laevis)蝌蚪96 h-LC50为8.95×10-2mg a.i.·L-1,土壤微生物28 d硝酸盐转化速率差异小于25%。因此,根据《化学农药环境安全评价试验准则》毒性等级划分标准,肟菌酯对鸟、蜜蜂、家蚕、蚯蚓等陆生生物为低毒,对水生生物的绿藻、大型溞、斑马鱼、非洲爪蟾蝌蚪均为高毒或剧毒,而对天敌赤眼蜂属高风险,故在田间使用过程中应采取措施降低其对水生生物以及天敌昆虫赤眼蜂急性毒性风险,以免造成危害。     

22种常用除草剂对蚯蚓(Eisenia fetida)的急性毒性

为评价农药对土壤动物的影响,采用滤纸法和人工土壤法测定了22种常用除草剂对赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia fetida)的急性毒性.滤纸法染毒48 h,特丁净、丙草胺、精异丙甲草胺、乙草胺和莎稗磷对蚯蚓为中等毒性,其LC50值为10.32(8310～12.23)～34.69(29.16～43.99) μg·cm-2;其次为...     

两种除草剂对蚯蚓的急性毒性及氧化胁迫效应

为评价两种常用除草剂草甘膦和精喹禾灵对土壤动物的影响,以赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia fetida)为受试生物,采用滤纸接触法和人工土壤法测定了两种除草剂的急性毒性效应。并通过人工土壤染毒法研究了两种除草剂对蚯蚓体内超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、过氧化物酶(POD)活性和丙二醛(MDA)含量的影响。结果表明,滤纸法染毒48 h,草甘膦和精喹禾灵对蚯蚓为低毒级,其LC50值分别为546.4和638.7μg·cm-2;人工土壤法染毒14 d,草甘膦和精喹禾灵对蚯蚓的LC50值分别为321.4和392.3 mg·kg-1,属低毒级。氧化胁迫试验结果表明,较低浓度草甘膦(≤4 mg·kg-1)和精喹禾灵(≤10 mg·kg-1)对蚯蚓体内抗氧化酶活性影响不显著,而40和80 mg·kg-1草甘膦在暴露7 d内对SOD、CAT和POD活性影响显著,表现为SOD活性显著提高,CAT和POD活性分别呈现降低-提高和提高-降低的变化趋势。暴露7 d内,100 mg·kg-1精喹禾灵对蚯蚓SOD活性表现为先刺激后抑制的变化趋势,CAT和POD活性显著提高。和对照相比,草甘膦污染土壤中蚯蚓体内MDA含量变化不显著,而高浓度精喹禾灵(100 mg·kg-1)污染土壤中,第7和14天时蚯蚓体内MDA含量显著提高。暴露14 d后,草甘膦和精喹禾灵对蚯蚓的氧化胁迫基本消失,说明供试浓度范围内草甘膦和精喹禾灵不会对蚯蚓造成严重的氧化损伤。与急性毒性结果相比,氧化胁迫效应更为敏感,可作为该两种除草剂对土壤生态影响早期预警中的生物标志物。     

10种常用农药对赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia foetida)的急性毒性效应

为了评价农药对土壤无脊椎动物种群的生态风险,采用OECD标准滤纸法和人工土壤法测定了10种常用农药对蚯蚓(Eisenia foetida)的急性毒性效应。采用滤纸法,48h测定结果表明,4种氨基甲酸酯类(异丙威、甲萘威、速灭威和丁硫克百威)和2种有机磷类(毒死蜱和哒嗪硫磷)农药对蚯蚓的急性毒性(其LC50值为3.50(2.77～4.44)～72.42(59.58～88.05)μg·cm-2)明显高于3种昆虫生长调节剂(噻嗪酮、虫酰肼和呋喃虫酰肼)和吡蚜酮对蚯蚓的急性毒性(其LC50值>629.1μg·cm-2)。采用人工土壤法,14d测定结果表明,上述4种氨基甲酸酯类农药对蚯蚓的急性毒性(其LC50值为59.61(55.13～64.44)～134.1(127.0～141.5)mg·kg-1)明显高于上述2种有机磷类农药和其他农药对蚯蚓的急性毒性(其LC50值为193.0(180.1～206.8)～386.4(359.7～414.2)mg·kg-1)。上述结果表明,不同类型的农药对蚯蚓的毒性存在较大差异,且同一类型的不同农药品种对蚯蚓的毒性也存在较大差异。总体来看,氨基甲酸酯类农药比其他类型的农药对蚯蚓具有更高的毒性。根据《化学农药环境安全评价试验准则》,本研究采用人工土壤法测定的所有农药对蚯蚓均为低毒级。     

3种助剂对赤子爱胜蚓的急性毒性

为了探究新型助剂LD-10与常用助剂NP-10、NP-4对土壤非靶标生物的影响,以赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia fetida)为受试生物,采用自然土壤法和灭菌土壤法,研究了这3种助剂对土壤蚯蚓的急性毒性.结果表明,在自然土壤中LD-10、NP-10和NP-4对蚯蚓7d半致死浓度w(LC50)分别为482.58、1 077.50和343.17 mg·kg-1,14 d的w(LC50)分别为438.38、984.64和316.65 mg.kg-1.在灭菌土壤中LD-10、NP-10和NP-4对蚯蚓7d的w(LC50)分别为350.71、960.95和309.63 mg·kg-1,14d的w(LC50)分别为320.24、745.99和274.76 mg·kg-1.在自然土壤和灭菌土壤中3种助剂对赤子爱胜蚓均为低毒,毒性由大到小依次为NP-4、LD-10和NP-10,且3者在灭菌土壤中的毒性均明显高于自然土壤.     

毒死蜱、马拉硫磷和氰戊菊酯对赤子爱胜蚓（Eisenia foetida）的急性毒性

采用滤纸接触法和土壤培养法研究了毒死蜱(Chlorpyrifos)、马拉硫磷(Malathion)和氰戊菊酯(Fenvalerate)对赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia foetida)的急性毒性效应.滤纸接触法试验浓度分别设置为,毒死蜱:3.14、6.28、9.42、12.56、15.70、18.84μg·cm-2;马拉硫磷:3.10、6.20、12.40、18.60、24.80、31.40μg·cm-2;氰戊菊酯:0.31、0.62、1.24、1.86、2.48、3.14μg·cm-2.土壤培养法试验浓度分别设置为,毒死蜱:100、125、150、175、200、225、250mg·kg-1;马拉硫磷:350、400、450、500、550、600mg·kg-1;氰戊菊酯:20、30、40、50、60、70、80mg·kg-1.结果表明:采用滤纸接触法测得的各农药对蚯蚓48h的半数致死浓度(LC50)分别为毒死蜱12.26μg·cm-2、马拉硫磷19.61μg·cm-2、氰戊菊酯1.03μg·cm-2;采用土壤培养法测得的各农药对蚯蚓7d的LC50分别为毒死蜱427.67mg·kg-1、马拉硫磷742.53mg·kg-1、氰戊菊酯81.81mg·kg-1,14d的LC50分别为毒死蜱182.21mg·kg-1、马拉硫磷497.29mg·kg-1、氰戊菊酯37.46mg·kg-1.根据《化学农药环境安全评价试验准则》,这3种农药对蚯蚓的毒性均为低毒级.     

5种酚类物质对中国白羽鹌鹑和中华蜜蜂的急性毒性

酚类物质作为一类主要的污染物,已引起国内外高度重视,但目前其对陆生生物的毒性研究较少。本试验探究了4-叔丁基苯酚、间甲酚、2-氯苯酚、2-甲酚、2,4-二氯苯酚这5种酚类物质对中国本土物种中国白羽鹌鹑和中华蜜蜂的急性毒性。在中国白羽鹌鹑的急性经口试验中,2-氯苯酚、2-甲酚的7 d的半致死浓度(7 d-LC50)分别为331 mg·kg~(-1)和413 mg·kg~(-1),其他3种酚类物质的7 d-LC50均大于限度值1 000 mg·kg~(-1);在中国白羽鹌鹑的急性饲喂试验中,5种酚类物质的8 d-LC50均大于限度值2 000 mg·kg~(-1);在中华蜜蜂的急性经口试验中,2-氯苯酚、2-甲酚和2,4-二氯苯酚的48 h-LC50分别为306 mg·L~(-1)、358 mg·L~(-1)和364 mg·L~(-1);在中华蜜蜂的急性接触试验中,2,4-二氯苯酚的48 h的半致死量(48 h-LD50)为2.6μg·蜂~(-1),其他4种酚类物质的48h-LD50均大于限度值100μg·蜂~(-1)。研究结果表明不同的酚类物质由于其结构不同亦表现出不同的毒性,甲酚的邻位取代比间位取代对中国白羽鹌鹑和中华蜜蜂的毒性更高,不同物种表现出了相似的规律性。5种酚类物质对我国本土物种中国白羽鹌鹑和中华蜜蜂毒性比对其他水生生物更敏感,存在良好的剂量效应关系。     

全氟辛烷磺酸盐(PFOS)替代品对中国白羽鹌鹑的生态毒性

为研究全氟辛烷磺酸盐(perfluorooctane sulfonate,PFOS)替代品对环境生物的毒害效应,选用中国白羽鹌鹑作为受试生物,建立其环境危害评价毒性测试方法,并对PFOS替代化学品进行了急性经口、急性饲喂及繁殖毒性的风险评价。结果表明,全氟丁基有机铵盐阳离子表面活性剂急性经口毒性实验的LD50为500.44mg·kg-1,其余3种替代化学品在上限浓度2000mg·kg-1,白羽鹌鹑均未出现明显死亡,4种PFOS替代品对中国白羽鹌鹑的急性经口毒性均为低毒。全氟丁基有机铵盐阳离子表面活性剂急性饲喂毒性实验的LC50为970.50mg.kg-1,对白羽鹌鹑的饲喂毒性为中毒,而其余3种替代化学品在上限浓度5000mg·kg-1,白羽鹌鹑均未出现明显死亡,对中国白羽鹌鹑的急性饲喂毒性为低毒。在长期饲喂过程中,织物三防整理剂和C6织物三防整理剂会表现出一定的生殖毒性,造成中国白羽鹌鹑的孵化率降低,胚胎死亡率及未受精率升高;全氟丁基有机铵盐阳离子表面活性剂会影响到中国白羽鹌鹑的未受精率,C4织物三防整理剂未表现出明显的生殖毒性。     

17种常用除草剂对蚯蚓的急性毒性

蚯蚓在改良土壤、消解农业废弃物、提高土壤养分和作物产量方面发挥着重要的作用。为了评价除草剂对蚯蚓的毒性,采用滤纸接触法和人工土壤法测定了17种除草剂对赤子爱胜蚓(Eisenia fetida)的急性毒性。滤纸接触法染毒48 h,噁唑酰草胺对赤子爱胜蚓的毒性最高,半数致死浓度LC_(50)(median lethal concentration)为7.6μg·cm~(-2),属高毒级;其次为丙草胺、高效氟吡甲禾灵和灭草松,LC_(50)分别为10.7、12.7、61.3μg·cm~(-2),属中毒级;二氯喹啉酸、2甲4氯钠、苯唑草酮、草铵膦、烟嘧磺隆和双草醚对赤子爱胜蚓的LC_(50)分别为143.0、198.2、211.1、466.9、433.7、649.2μg·cm~(-2),属低毒级;吡嘧磺隆、五氟磺草胺、嘧啶肟草醚、氰氟草酯、乙羧氟草醚、二甲戊灵和硝磺草酮对赤子爱胜蚓的LC_(50)均大于1 000μg·cm~(-2),属微毒级。人工土壤法染毒14 d,高效氟吡甲禾灵对赤子爱胜蚓的毒性最高,LC_(50)为148.9 mg·kg~(-1);其次为丙草胺、2甲4氯钠、二甲戊灵和噁唑酰草胺,LC_(50)分别为211.5、335.0、342.4、345.7 mg·kg~(-1);此外,其他供试除草剂对赤子爱胜蚓的LC_(50)均大于500 mg·kg~(-1)。根据《化学农药环境安全评价试验准则》中的分级标准,采用人工土壤法测定的17种除草剂对赤子爱胜蚓的毒性均为低毒级。该研究可为评估除草剂对蚯蚓的生态风险提供新的数据信息,同时可为农业生产中安全使用除草剂提供技术指导。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Importance of greater interdisciplinarity and geographic scope when tackling the driving forces behind biological invasions

Invasive non-native species are important drivers of ecosystem change, yet the driving forces of biological invasions themselves are poorly understood. Such information is essential to ensure policies focus on the most relevant drivers, and that future scenarios capture the full range of potential outcomes for invasive non-native species. I carried out a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 2000 to 2020 that address either invasive non-native species or biodiversity and ecosystem services and that also mention 1 or more drivers of ecosystem change. I examined 5 indirect drivers (demographic, economic, governance, sociocultural, and technological) and 6 direct drivers (climate change, invasive non-native species, land-use or sea-use change, natural hazards, pollution, and resource extraction). Using the Web of Science core collection of citation indexes, I undertook searches of article titles and keywords and retrieved 27,462 articles addressing invasive non-native species and 110,087 articles dealing with biodiversity or ecosystem services. Most research to date on biological invasions as well as on biodiversity and ecosystem services has focused on anthropogenic direct drivers of ecosystem change rather than indirect drivers. Yet currently, less than 18% of articles addressing biological invasions examined drivers of ecosystem change, a similar level to that found over 20 years ago for biodiversity or ecosystem services. Knowledge of the drivers of biological invasions is limited, emphasizes tractable drivers over those that require an interdisciplinary approach, and is biased toward developed economies. Drivers generally deemed important for biological invasions, such as governance and resource extraction, accounted for less than 2% of research effort. The absence of a systematic understanding of the forces that drive invasive non-native species and how they interact means that attempts to mitigate or forecast biological invasions are likely to fail. To address biological invasions requires a much better orientation of national and international research on drivers in relation to both their actual importance as well as their policy relevance.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Mitigating the effects of climate change on the nests of sea turtles with artificial irrigation

For sea turtles, like many oviparous species, increasing temperatures during development threaten to increase embryonic mortality, alter offspring quality, and potentially create suboptimal primary sex ratios. Various methods are being implemented to mitigate the effects of climate change on reproductive success, but these methods, such as breeding programs, translocations, and shading, are often invasive and expensive. Irrigation is an alternative strategy for cooling nests that, depending on location, can be implemented relatively quickly and cheaply. However, multiple factors, including ambient conditions, nest substrate, and species characteristics, can influence irrigation success. Additionally, irrigation can vary in duration, frequency, and the volume of water applied to nests, which influences the cooling achieved and embryonic survival. Thus, it is critical to understand how to maximize cooling and manage risks before implementing irrigation as a nest-cooling strategy. We reviewed the literature on nest irrigation to examine whether artificial irrigation is feasible as a population management tool. Key factors that affected cooling were the volume of water applied and the frequency of applications. Embryonic responses varied with species, ambient conditions, and the timing of irrigation during development. Nest inundation was the key risk to a successful irrigation regime. Future irrigation regimes must identify clear targets, either primary or adult sex ratios, that maximize population viability. Monitoring population responses and adjusting the irrigation regime in response to population characteristics will be critical. Most studies reported on the manipulation of only one or two variables, further research is required to understand how altering multiple factors in an irrigation regime influences the cooling achieved and embryonic responses.     

Positive and Negative Effects of a Threatened Parrotfish on Reef Ecosystems

Species that are strong interactors play disproportionately important roles in the dynamics of natural ecosystems. It has been proposed that their presence is necessary for positively shaping the structure and functioning of ecosystems. We evaluated this hypothesis using the case of the world's largest parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), a globally imperiled species. We used direct observation, animal tracking, and computer simulations to examine the diverse routes through which B. muricatum affects the diversity, dispersal, relative abundance, and survival of the corals that comprise the foundation of reef ecosystems. Our results suggest that this species can influence reef building corals in both positive and negative ways. Field observation and simulation outputs indicated that B. muricatum reduced the abundance of macroalgae that can outcompete corals, but they also feed directly on corals, decreasing coral abundance, diversity, and colony size. B. muricatum appeared to facilitate coral advancement by mechanically dispersing coral fragments and opening up bare space for coral settlement, but they also damaged adult corals and remobilized a large volume of potentially stressful carbonate sediment. The impacts this species has on reefs appears to be regulated in part by its abundance—the effects of B. muricatum were more intense in simulation scenarios populated with high densities of these fish. Observations conducted in regions with high and low predator (e.g., sharks) abundance generated results that are consistent with the hypothesis that these predators of B. muricatum may play a role in governing their abundance; thus, predation may modulate the intensity of the effects they have on reef dynamics. Overall our results illustrate that functionally unique and threatened species may not have universally positive impacts on ecosystems and that it may be necessary for environmental managers to consider the diverse effects of such species and the forces that mediate the strength of their influence. Efectos Positivos y Negativos de un Pez Loro Amenazado Sobre Ecosistemas Arrecifales     

Form-specific fragances fromOphrys insectifera L. (Orchidaceae) attract species of different pollinator genera. Evidence of sympatric speciation?

Two closely related forms ofOphrys insectifera were observed in the field to attract different pollinator species selectively.O. i. ssp.insectifera attracted males of two species ofArgogorytes (Sphecidae, Hymenoptera Aculeata) andO. i. ssp.aymoninii attractedAndrena combinata males (Andrenidae, Apoidea, Hymenoptera Aculeata). A third form,O. aff.i. ssp.insectifera, attracted none of these three species. Volatile compounds from flowers and inflorescences of the three forms (originating from Öland, Sweden, and Aveyron, France) were collected, using entrainment, enfleurage, and solvent extraction techniques, and identified by gas chromatography — mass spectrometry. Scent differences between the three forms were confirmed in the amounts of aliphatic hydrocarbons (C₁₁–C₁₉), methyl esters (C₁₄–C₁₈), short chain aliphatic 1-alcohols (C₆–C₁₂), and monoterpene alcohols (C₁₀).     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.