Land cover types and ecological conditions of the Estonian coast

Detailed analysis of the land cover of the Estonian coastal zone is presented based on Estonian laws on coastal zone management, the CORINE Land Cover (CLC) system, the status of protected areas, and administrative division data of Estonia. By law the coastal zone is defined as a 200-m wide zone landward from the mean sea level line. The length of the Estonian coastline (including the islands) is 3794 km. The 200-m zone of the Estonian coast is very diverse. Out of the 34 CORINE land cover types represented in Estonia 30 are found in the coastal zone. Three dominating land cover types in the coastal zone of Estonia are inland marshes, coniferous forest and semi-natural grassland. Their total share is 47%; the other 27 land cover types represented here cover 53% of the coastal zone. The Estonian coastal zone is generally in a good natural condition. The proportion of artificial surfaces throughout the zone is merely 4.7%, while agricultural landscapes cover only ca. 10%. Land cover data for the coastal zone are also presented by county. Of the 200-m coastal zone 24% is under protection, which is more than twice the value for Estonia as a whole (11%). Legislative protection of the coastal zone is presently satisfactory. The use of the CORINE Land Cover system enables comparisons with other European regions since CLC data have been compiled for most of Europe.     

Management of the belgian coast: Opinions and solutions

Since the beginning of the 20th century the Belgian coast has undergone important changes of which an overview is presented here. To determine the view of the Belgian public on the Belgian coast and in order to obtain their opinions and solutions to the problems along the Belgian coast, a questionnaire survey was conducted with a total of 100 respondents divided into five groups, all active in the coastal zone. The five groups included (1) politicians on various levels of authority, (2) coastal entrepreneurs and business people, (3) naturalists and scientists, (4) coastal residents and (5) tourists. Coastal zone problems, as perceived by the different groups, and their solutions are discussed. Former municipalities, in particular, were held responsible for the current coastal problems. Most respondents were skeptic about the application of recent juridical instruments (e.g. the Dune Decree), the structural plans and their power to protect the remaining natural areas. The root of the problems seems to lie in lack of coordination and communication between different authorities responsible for the coastal zone.     

Monitoring and management of the coasts of Lake Peipsi,Eastern Europe

Lake Peipsi is of great economic significance, first of all, in terms of water transport, fishery and energy production. Its bottom deposits hold great reserves of curative mud and building materials, and its waters cool the huge kettles of the Baltic and Estonian Thermal Power Plants and drive the turbines of the Narva Hydropower Station. The beaches of the lake, especially in the northern and eastern parts, have a high recreational value. The lake is shared between Estonia and Russia. The sparsely distributed population is mainly engaged in fishery and agriculture. Long-term observations have shown that the water level in L. Peipsi fluctuates greatly. This complicates water transport, shore protection and recreational possibilities around the lake. Both, water erosion and hummocky ice have changed the coasts, but differently in every year. Due to the uneven glacioisostatic uplift of the lake basin the water masses are steadily retreating southward, which means that in the coming future erosion of the northern coast will diminish and large areas on the southern coast will be flooded. Sustainable development of L. Peipsi integrates social, economic, cultural and environmental concerns. Recommendations for the protection and management of the coastal zone are presented.     

The Coastal Environmental Characteristics of Taiwan

Abstract

There are three major factors affecting the coastal environment in Taiwan: tidal current, long-shore current and land subsidence. in Taiwan, most industrial areas are located on the southwestern coast. Most of the pollutants from the factories are discharged directly to the ocean, harbours or rivers. the pollutants in harbours or rivers will eventually be delivered to coastal waters. There, the tidal current is the major force dispersing the pollutants nearshore. the polluted water extends to an area about 5 km on both sides from the discharge source, and within about 3–4 km off-shore. in this study, Hsien-Da Harbour in southwestern Taiwan is cited to explain the effects of tidal current on the coastal environment. the long-shore current induced by breaking waves is the major force shaping the coastal morphology. Along the western coast of Taiwan, the long-shore current mainly flows northward along the southern section, and southward along the northern section. in the last one hundred years, in general, the coast has been eroded along the northern and southern sections of western coast, and some reclaimed lands were formed in the middle section. Recently, erosion in some coastal zones is quite serious because of excess groundwater extraction, especially along the southwestern coast. Groundwater extraction might also induce land subsidence. There are some areas near the coast which suffer serious land subsidence problems.     

Land-use dynamics and landscape pattern change in a coastal gulf region,southeast China

This study quantitatively analyzed spatiotemporal changes in land use and landscape pattern in a coastal gulf region of southeast China by comparing classified satellite images from 1988, 2002, and 2007, using a geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing (RS), and landscape pattern metrics. The results show an increase in cropland, built-up area, and aquaculture area and a decrease in orchards, woodland, and beach area during 1988–2007. Over the study period, 64.3% of newly-expanded cropland was from woodland; newly-expanded built-up area of 34.8, 27.2, and 20.4% was converted from cropland, woodland, and beach areas, respectively; and newly-expanded aquaculture increased by 45.1 and 29.4% from beach and water body areas, respectively. Trend analysis of landscape pattern metrics demonstrates fragmentation of the landscape, with landscape pattern structure becoming more complex over the last two decades in the Louyuan Gulf region. Urbanization and policy developed to transfer beach/seawater areas into built-up area/aquaculture are the two main driving forces contributing to dynamic changes in land use and landscape pattern in the last two decades in Louyuan.     

The Coastal Environmental Characteristics of Taiwan

There are three major factors affecting the coastal environment in Taiwan: tidal current, long-shore current and land subsidence. in Taiwan, most industrial areas are located on the southwestern coast. Most of the pollutants from the factories are discharged directly to the ocean, harbours or rivers. the pollutants in harbours or rivers will eventually be delivered to coastal waters. There, the tidal current is the major force dispersing the pollutants nearshore. the polluted water extends to an area about 5 km on both sides from the discharge source, and within about 3-4 km off-shore. in this study, Hsien-Da Harbour in southwestern Taiwan is cited to explain the effects of tidal current on the coastal environment. the long-shore current induced by breaking waves is the major force shaping the coastal morphology. Along the western coast of Taiwan, the long-shore current mainly flows northward along the southern section, and southward along the northern section. in the last one hundred years, in general, the coast has been eroded along the northern and southern sections of western coast, and some reclaimed lands were formed in the middle section. Recently, erosion in some coastal zones is quite serious because of excess groundwater extraction, especially along the southwestern coast. Groundwater extraction might also induce land subsidence. There are some areas near the coast which suffer serious land subsidence problems.     

Land-use changes and implications for management of a small protected island off the coast of Bretagne

Over the 20th century, reduced land cultivation has caused an extension of fallow land in several European countries, which has led to a decrease in biodiversity. Knowledge of dynamic vegetation processes and of the impact of human activities on biodiversity provides the basis for land management recommendations, as well as for wildlife management programs. We analysed land-use changes on a small protected island (Ushant, Bretagne, France) using historical documentation (1844) and aerial photographs taken in 1952 and 1992. Over this period, especially during the last 40 yr, Ushant underwent a complete transformation from rural landscape to extensive shrubland. No cultivated area remains, grazed areas were moved from the coastal fringe to the core of the island, while over 40% of the island is fallow land. The relationship between current sheep grazing and vegetation suggests that grazed meadows used to be close to inhabited areas, i.e. 150 m outside the villages. These results allowed us to analyse landcover potential related to changes in the intensity of sheep grazing. The scenarios highlighted by our method provide an objective framework for further assessment of fallow land management.     

An application of GIS and coastal geomorphology for large scale assessment of coastal erosion and management: a case study of Ghana

Coastal erosion poses serious threat to life and properties along Ghana??s coast. This is because major industries, urban settlements, recreational facilities, heritage and conservation sites are located few metres from the coast. In spite of this threat, management strategies, both past and present, remain an ??ad hoc?? and site specific. Limited attention has been given to large scale assessment and investigation to detect the rate of coastal recession and the size of land lost to the sea to inform integrated management plan and to formulate sustainable management strategies to deal with the problem. This paper provides large scale assessment of coastal recession in Ghana through field investigation, applied coastal geomorphology and GIS techniques to selected case study areas. The assessment covered 203?km out of the 540?km coastline of Ghana. Results of the assessment indicate that coastal erosion is very substantial and wide spread along the coast, but the rate of recession varies across the entire coastline. Significant amounts of losses of settlements have been experienced in some localities in the eastern coast (Keta and Ada) and the central coast (Accra, Shama and Sekondi-Takoradi). In some areas, coastal defences have been built to reduce the impacts, yet many areas are still very vulnerable. Interestingly, the paper identified that the high rates of retreat recorded in many areas have yet to cause major risks in some local communities because of the presence of a buffer of largely undeveloped land that has existed historically between the shoreline and the developments. However, recent increase in coastal tourism in Ghana has led to ??scramble?? for purchase of these buffer lands for development, which increase the risk. Ghana has the opportunity to use education and land use planning to keep the coastline clear of major developments and avoid the temptation of engaging in costly cycle of development-risk-defence experienced in many countries including the UK and the Netherlands. The paper recommends that Ghana should adopt the UK SMP, which has progressively moved away from the traditional re-active and parochial approaches of providing localised hard-engineered coastal defence work to solve what was perceived to be a local problem, to a more pro-active and holistic approach that take full account of coastal dynamics, interrelationships of coastal systems, knock-on effects, environment concerns and developments at the backshore.     

Industrial development and land use/cover change and their effects on local environment: a case study of Changshu in eastern coastal China

The interactions among industrial development, land use/cover change (LUCC), and environmental effects in Changshu in the eastern coastal China were analyzed using high-resolution Landsat TM data in 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2006, socio-economic data and water environmental quality monitoring data from research institutes and governmental departments. Three phases of industrial development in Changshu were examined (i.e., the three periods of 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2000, and 2000 to 2006). Besides industrial development and rapid urbanization, land use/cover in Changshu had changed drastically from 1990 to 2006. This change was characterized by major replacements of farmland by urban and rural settlements, artificial ponds, forested and constructed land. Industrialization, urbanization, agricultural structure adjustment, and rural housing construction were the major socio-economic driving forces of LUCC in Changshu. In addition, the annual value of ecosystem services in Changshu decreased slightly during 1990–2000, but increased significantly during 2000–2006. Nevertheless, the local environmental quality in Changshu, especially in rural areas, has not yet been improved significantly. Thus, this paper suggests an increased attention to fully realize the role of land supply in adjustment of environment-friendly industrial structure and urban-rural spatial restructuring, and translating the land management and environmental protection policies into an optimized industrial distribution and land-use pattern.     

Changing morphology of Ghana’s Accra coast

Coastal features in Ghana's Accra coast reflect both past and present processes that have been undergoing changes. These changes are influenced by a range of morphogenic factors such as geology and climatic conditions. These regimes have shaped the coastal geomorphic features through weathering processes that decompose and disintegrate the coastal rock. Sea level rise due to climate change is expected to increase coastal erosion and thus result in rapid changes in shoreline positions. Historic rate of sea level rise in Accra coast is about 2 mm/yr (Ibe & Quelennec, 1989) which is predicted to reach approximately 6 mm/yr in the next century since it conforms to the global change (Armah et al., 2005). This will result in flooding of vulnerable areas and enable waves to break closer inland. The effectiveness of the erosion process is aided considerably by the type of geology. Accra coastal zone has three types of rock in three identified geomorphic regions. They include unconsolidated and poorly consolidated rock along the western region, the Accraian series occupying the central region and the Dahomeyan series in the eastern region. The geology has thus influenced the extent to which the coastal features have changed and the type of cliff that is formed as a result of erosion within the regions. Generally, soft rock coastal features decay more rapidly than those of hard rock and tend to act as sediment sources. Human activities such as dam construction over the Densu River, engineering interventions to check the spread of erosion and sand mining has created sediment deficit which has exacerbated coastal erosion in Accra. Anthropogenic factors are estimated to account for 70-90% of coastal erosion problems in Accra.     

Shoreline morphological changes and the human factor. Case study of Accra Ghana

The interface between the sea and land is a very dynamic system that is always migrating landward or seaward. The landward migration results in the shoreline threatening coastal infrastructure and destroying the coastal environment. Coastal erosion has resulted in both social and economic problems. Coastal cities have also experienced increasing infrastructure development and population growth. This has resulted in a land “squeeze situation” in which both the shoreline and the “humanline” are competing for space along the coast. This struggle for space could result in serious environmental disaster as a result of the dynamics of the oceanic system, which could impact the immediate environs severely. The aim of this study was to determine if the rate of human encroachment of coastal lands for development exceed the rate at which the shoreline is moving inland as part of its natural cyclic behaviour. This study used 1985 aerial photographs and 2005 orthophoto map of the Accra western coast. Major land cover was identified, classified and overlayed in GIS environment. This enabled changes to be estimated. The shorelines were also digitised and the rate of change computed using the DSAS software. The results indicate that the estimated total area of land lost by human encroachment on the coastal land within the period under study is about 242,139.7 m2. However, the rate of land lost to human development is about 8,349.64 m2/year, which is relatively high. The historic rate of erosion computed for the period under study is about 1.92 m/year. Comparing the two rates indicates that human activities are moving closer to the shoreline as compared to the rate at which the shoreline is moving inland. This study recommends that setback lines should be put in place to protect lands for the shoreline’s cyclic activities.     

Shoreline changes in response to sea level rise along Digha Coast,Eastern India: an analytical approach of remote sensing,GIS and statistical techniques

Shoreline is one of the rapidly changing linear features of the coastal zone which is dynamic in nature. The issue of shoreline changes due to sea level rise over the next century has increasingly become a major social, economic and environmental concern to a large number of countries along the coast, where it poses a serious problem to the environment and human settlements. As a consequence, some coastal scientists have advocated analyzing and predicting coastal changes on a more local scale. The present study demonstrates the potential of remote sensing, geospatial and statistical techniques for monitoring the shoreline changes and sea level rise along Digha coast, the eastern India. In the present study, multi-resolution and multi temporal satellite images of Landsat have been utilized to demarcate shoreline positions during 1972, 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010. The statistical techniques, linear regression, end-point rate and regression coefficient (R²) have been used to find out the shoreline change rates and sea level change during the periods of 1972–2010. Monthly and annual mean sea level data for three nearby station viz., Haldia, Paradip and Gangra from 1972 to 2006 have been used to this study. Finally, an attempt has been made to find out interactive relationship between the sea level rise and shoreline change of the study area. The results of the present study show that combined use of satellite imagery, sea level data and statistical methods can be a reliable method in correlating shoreline changes with sea level rise.     

填海造陆的环境效应研究进展

填海造陆是沿海地带缓解人地矛盾的有效手段,在我国方兴未艾。作为大规模的人类干扰活动,填海造陆必然对海岸带系统的各个方面产生巨大影响。需要从自然地理过程的各个要素和人类社会组成的环境系统的统一协调发展中,寻求填海造陆的科学方案,实现海岸带的有序利用。文章结合近年来研究进展详细分析了填海造陆对于土地、水文、生态及气候、原料源地等多方面的环境效应及其关联。结果发现：（1）填海造陆对环境的负效应在种类上多于正效应;（2）填海造陆的影响范围遍及从海到陆的整个海岸带区域;（3）填海造陆效应具有从短期扰动事件到长期生态和物理过程的宽域时间尺度;（4）填海造陆各个效应之间存在着很强的关联和促进机制。未来应加强填海造陆对陆地滨海地区的影响,对气候和海洋地貌等长期自然过程的效应,以及各方面环境效应间的正负反馈机制定量化等方面的研究。     

Long term and short term coastal line changes of the Eastern Gulf of Finland. Problems of coastal erosion

Traditionally the coastal zone of the easternmost (Russian) part of the Gulf of Finland has not been considered as an area of active litho- and morphodynamics, but a recent study has shown that the easternmost part of the coastal zone suffers from erosion. Within some coastal segments the shoreline recession rate reaches 2 ?C 2.5?m/year. As well as determining the hydrodynamic reasons for recent erosion acceleration, important geological and geomorphic features of coastal zone which influenced the lithodynamics were established. The Kurortny District of St.Petersburg is located along the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland to the west of the St. Petersburg Flood Protection Facility. It has special importance as a unique recreation zone of the North-West of Russia. Coastal erosion is one of the most serious problems of the area. The analysis of historical materials, archive aerial photographs and modern high-resolution satellite images have shown that advancing parts of coast are almost non-existant with most sections of the coast being eroded and further retreating. Field monitoring between 2004 and 2007 showed intense damage to sandy beaches during autumn and winter storms and progressive erosion of the dunes system. Among the most important natural reasons for the erosion processes are that the coastline is open to storm waves induced by westerly and south-westerly winds, the geological structure of coastal area (easily eroded Quaternary deposits) and a sediment deficit. In some areas sediment loss was the result of the submarine coastal slope morphology (a steep slope of a narrow submarine terrace within the area of sediment drift discharge), with erosion of an alongshore submarine sandy terrace and erosion runnels at the depth 8?C12?m. The situation becomes worse due to anthropogenic impact. The southern coastal zone dynamics are also very active. According to an aerial and satellite photos analysis from 1975?C1976 to 1989?C1990, sandy beaches to the west of Lebyazhye village were eroded up to 30?m, and near Bolshaya Izora village up to 70?m. The comparison of coastine GPSsurvey with old nautical and topographic charts published in the 1980s shows the considerable change.     

An analysis of the developmental differences in Borneo’s Southeastern and Northwestern Coastal Zones

In this research, Landsat TM images were used to extract the land use information for Borneo’s coastal zones (0 to 35 km) during three time periods (1990, 2000, and 2010). Then, in combination with the DEM and shoreline types, the developmental differences under the influences of the geographical boundaries of the Borneo coastal zones were examined from such perspectives as the spatial distribution characteristics of the land development, sea-land gradient variation characteristics, and comparative analyses of the different regions. The results indicated that the geographic boundaries, as well as the different countries, had great influences on the development of the coastal zones. The regions with the most active development in Borneo’s coastal zones were mainly located in the estuary bay, onshore with land on both sides, and the near-shore alluvial plain with DEM?<?50 m. The northwestern coast zone showed relatively flat topography, and was close to an important international waterway. Therefore, the development in this area was found to be more intense than in the southeastern coastal zone, and which was characterized by a long developmental history. On one side of the geographical boundary, the development was also found to differ among the different countries. Malaysia was observed to be dominated by industrial plantations. Meanwhile, the industrial plantations, agriculture, and aquaculture in Indonesia were significantly increased, which was closely linked with the national economic policies. Furthermore, the development of Borneo’s coastal zones has led to vegetation degradation towards a constant inland development, plantation enlargements, agricultural development, and cleared and burnt areas, which have resulted in the land use transfer of 22,000 km² of forest land within the 0 to 35 km range.     

Ten years of land cover change on the California coast detected using Landsat satellite image analysis: Part 2—San Mateo and Santa Cruz counties

Landsat satellite imagery was analyzed to generate a detailed record of 10 years of vegetation disturbance and regrowth for Pacific coastal areas of San Mateo and Santa Cruz Counties. The Landsat Ecosystem Disturbance Adaptive Processing System (LEDAPS) methodology, a transformation of Tasseled-Cap data space, was applied to detected changes in perennial coastal shrubland, woodland, and forest cover from 1999 to 2009. Results showed several principal points of interest, within which extensive contiguous areas of similar LEDAPS vegetation change (either disturbed or restored) were detected. Regrowth of evergreen shrub and tree cover was prevalent along the several long stretches of the coast highway (CA Route 1) between the cities of Half Moon Bay and Santa Cruz. A number of state parks areas showed measurable vegetation restoration as well. The most prominent loss of perennial coastal vegetation over decade was in the Pescadero Marsh area, where the continued presence of levees has historically reduced flood conveyance capacity into and through the marshlands. Based on these examples, the LEDAPS methodology was determined to be capable of fulfilling much of the need for continual, low-cost monitoring of emerging changes to coastal ecosystems.     

Using earth observation data from multiple sources to map rare habitats in a coastal conservation area

Kenfig NNR (National Nature Reserve) is a coastal sand dune system in south Wales, UK. The site is an important location for the conservation of the fen orchidLiparis loeselii, a significant proportion of the UK population is found solely on the site. Approaches to the mapping and monitoring of the habitats at Kenfig NNR using EO (Earth Observation) methods are investigated. Typical airborne EO missions over such sites produce more than a single source of EO data; these may include various optical imaging sensors with different spectral ranges, film cameras and ranging devices to measure topography. Conservation managers are thus presented with the problem of which sources of data to use when producing a land cover map of the site of interest. Using a data set gathered over the Kenfig NNR site, we investigate land cover mapping methods for conservation. The land cover types of interest typically cover small areas within a much larger site so they present a hard problem for the EO data and associated classification methods to solve. Land cover classifications produced from the data sets provide a set of competing hypotheses of land cover type for the site. Methods we use to resolve this competition between the data sets include voting methods, data fusion methods and a method utilising fuzzy logic to aggregate information. This paper is intended to act as an introduction to some of the issues involved in using EO data for habitat mapping in highly heterogeneous coastal dune environments and to present some preliminary results of the performance of each method.     

Portuguese coastal zones and the new coastal management plans

Coastal zones in Portugal, as interface areas between land and sea, have problems related to the growing human pressure in terms of changes in land use associated with urban and industrial occupation, new accessibility (ports, motorways) and traffic flows, intensification of recreational use (beaches, water sports) and excessive fishing. Impacts include deterioration of water quality and sediments; alteration and degradation of natural habitats; new hydrodynamic situations; major landscape changes: and rapid changes in habits and way of life of the local populations and increased exposure of populations and assets to natural and induced risks (storms, accidents, spills, explosions). Plans for the Management of the Coastal Zone (POOC) have been developed and seven of them have been approved, while two similar plans are at a final stage of preparation. Together they cover the entire coast of Portugal. Their implementation and assessment could be a first step towards an integrated management of the Portuguese coastal zones. River Basin Management Plans (PBH) have been concluded and recently approved for the whole country. However, these plans do not consider estuarine systems and some other issues related to coastal systems. The National Water Plan (PNA) is under public presentation and discussion. Several ‘key messages’ are presented in this paper as a contribution for assessment of the proposals of this plan on issues related with coastal waters.     

Incorporating private lands in conservation planning: protected areas in Britain.

Evaluations of the effectiveness of protected areas often report their inadequate representation of regional variation in environmental conditions, land cover, and biological diversity. One frequent contributory explanation is the heavy reliance placed upon the designation of public as opposed to private lands for statutory protection. Given that protected area designation in Britain has no such constraint, and indeed that more than half of such areas are on private lands, we tested the a priori assumption that within this region the representation of environmental conditions and land cover within statutory protected areas would be more equitable. Despite the reduction in land ownership constraints on where protected areas can be established, a marked bias in protected area coverage remains. Protected areas in Britain tend toward regions of higher elevation, soils of lower economic potential, and coastal/estuarine habitat and fail adequately to represent areas of lower elevation and woodland habitats. Improving the current situation requires not only a more systematic approach to site selection, but a more equitable and diverse portfolio of incentives for private landowners to facilitate the decision to manage sites for conservation.