Increasing uptake of low impact urban design and development: The role of sustainability assessment systems

Abstract

‘Market transformation’ of the significant urban development industry towards more sustainable practices is not moving at great pace. Design and assessment systems that may promote uptake of more sustainable urban design and development are reviewed briefly followed by a comparison between building and neighbourhood scales. For the latter there is a dearth of design and assessment tools for the residential built environment and of indicators to monitor progress towards sustainable development. Local authorities increasingly require an integrated approach to data collection and inclusion of infrastructure service providers in design, assessment and monitoring of urban development and associated environmental effects. By examining attempts to increase uptake of more sustainable residential development, the potential for tools and indicators at the neighbourhood scale to reduce environmental impact of the built environment is highlighted. It is recommended that built environment initiatives need to be combined with research into behavioural changes to achieve the desired outcome of a sustainable built environment and to increase the dialogue between communities, developers and local authorities.     

Social sustainability and neighbourhood design: an investigation of residents' satisfaction in Delhi

Social and environmental goals are often mutually reinforcing. Urban forms may encourage social sustainability as well as social inclusion or may have the potential to create areas of crime and social exclusion. The issues of relationship between sustainable development and urban form have given birth to new paradigms of design approach such as new urbanism, the compact city and the eco-city. This paper examines the impact of urban form on social sustainability at the neighbourhood level. It seeks to better understand the relationship between urban form and social sustainability by comparing three neighbourhoods with dissimilar urban forms in Delhi, India. Household surveys and observation surveys in these three neighbourhoods were conducted, and it was found that the urban form of a neighbourhood plays a very important role in creating a socially sustainable residential neighbourhood. The study established that social interactions within the communities are higher when dwelling units are placed around the public realm or common open space. The study demonstrated that provision of high quality and well-located open space at the precinct level, mixed land use and good accessibility to the public realm and social infrastructure play an important role in increasing the social sustainability of the neighbourhood.     

Energy and environment in the European Union: An indicator-based analysis

The European Environment Agency (EEA) is the European Union body dedicated to providing sound, independent information on the environment. It is a major information source for those involved in developing, adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policy in Europe, and also for the general public. In line with its mandate, the EEA has developed — focused around a set of policy relevant questions — a set of indicators to assess progress in Europe in integrating environmental considerations into the energy sector. Each question is answered through one or more indicators describing the development of the sector in Europe, implications for the environment and links to policy actions. The indicators cover not only the current situation, but also trends and prospects and, most importantly, point to the conditions for change that are needed for progress towards a more sustainable energy policy that benefits the environment. The results of the most recent assessment are presented in this article and show that in many areas of environmental integration there have been some successes, but overall progress to date has been insufficient. Substantial additional action will therefore be required in the future if the European Union is going to move towards a more environmentally sustainable energy system.     

Quality of life and sustainability: Toward person–environment congruity

In the light of sustainable development requirements, environmental psychology has an increasing role to play in addressing people–environment congruity. People–environment congruity refers to the interrelation between the individual and his or her (especially: residential) environment, considering the match between individual life satisfaction and objective standards of living. Promoting human well-being requires looking beyond singular effects of environmental features and considering people's overall relationship to their environment. This leads us to look at the residential environment as the place where people–environment congruity is crucial, and to propose a framework of analyses of the conditions of congruity between objective and subjective assessment of environmental stressors in relation to the individual and social expression of well-being. The paper concludes with the implications of people–environment congruity for research and policy-making about sustainable development.     

Evaluation of sustainable development strategies and policies: The need for more timely indicators

Indicators are commonly used as tools to identify and highlight socio‐economic and ecological trends and to assess progress towards sustainability. Different quality criteria can be considered for indicators. This paper focuses on the timeliness of indicators used in the evaluation of sustainable development strategies. The analysis is based on indicators included in four assessment reports of the sustainable development strategy of the European Union and three assessment reports of the national strategy of Finland. Furthermore, a web‐based national level indicator portal is analysed. The results show that the timeliness of indicators has generally not improved during the past decade and that indicators used in strategy evaluations have a time lag of approximately two years. It is suggested that more attention should be given to efforts to improve the timeliness of indicators in order to increase the effectiveness of the evaluations. More generally, it is suggested that greater emphasis should be put on the empirical research on actual use of indicators.     

Sustainability versus liveability: an investigation of neighbourhood satisfaction

Recent years have witnessed an increasing emphasis placed on planning systems in most advanced capitalist societies to develop a more sustainable urban development pattern, resulting in policies to increase residential densities. Although belief in the virtues of the compact city approach is now widespread among the policy community, questions remain relating to the ‘sustainability versus liveability’ implications of compact city environments. In this regard, while the public may support sustainability principles, there is a perception that high-density development poses too great a cost on individuals' quality of life. Combining both quantitative and qualitative research data, this paper evaluates the relationship between high-density living and neighbourhood satisfaction within the central city. Findings suggest that, in many instances, it is not high density per se that is the source of dissatisfaction for respondents, but rather other related factors such as environmental quality, noise, lack of community involvement, traffic and lack of services and facilities.     

Developing an Environmental Indicator System for Sustainable Development in China: Two Case Studies of Selected Indicators

Environmental indicator systems are a fundamental tool in quantifying the environmental component of sustainable development. They are useful because they quantify the status and trends of key environmental parameters and provide information on the environment that allows authorities and communities to make informed decisions. This article analyzes the basic framework for Chinese environmental indicator systems and presents a “core” set of environmental indicators. In our research, we used a theme approach to develop the environmental indicator systems. We performed two case studies of selected indicators. In the first, we used an urban ambient air pollution composite index and an urban ambient air pollution indicator for three main pollutants to examine trends in urban air pollution in China from 1990 to 2000 at regional and national levels. The results indicate that China has made some progress towards controlling urban air pollution, but must do more in order to reach acceptable pollution levels. We think that an aggregated index and disaggregated indicators have important complementary roles in the policy-making processes. In the second case study, we developed and constructed a grassland degradation index that aggregates information on the extent and severity of grassland degradation. Taking the Xilinhaote region of Inner Mongolia as the study area, we calculated this index by combining remote-sensing data, a geographical information system (GIS), and field investigation. Based on these results, we provide recommendations regarding further development and measurement of environmental indicators in China.     

Incorporating sustainable development concerns into an urban regeneration project: how politics can defeat procedures

It is often thought that new procedural arrangements can help embed sustainable development as a policy goal into policy practice. This is the hope of tools such as environmental assessment, sustainability audits and sustainability indicators. Using a case study of urban regeneration in the London Borough of Southwark, this paper critically examines these claims. It shows how sustainable development was sidelined as a policy goal during the evaluation of the Master Plan for the area, the appraisal of individual projects for funding under the Single Regeneration Budget and the development of two local sustainability indicator projects. In each case the local political circumstances were key factors in shaping policy practice and outcomes. This leads to a re-evaluation of such procedural policy tools, emphasizing the importance of local governance contexts.     

Sustainable Development and Environmental Impact Assessment in Egypt: Historical Assessment

The achievement of sustainable development demands the integration of environment and development. To achieve sustainable development requires a close collaboration and cooperation between environmentalists and the decision-makers. The evidence is that in developing countries (Egypt, as an example) the gap is widening rather than closing. Intensive research programs are needed, for instance in the field of sustainable development and urban environmental management, to narrow that gap. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has become a management tool for achieving acceptable forms of environmentally sound development and sustainability; at best it is proving nothing more than a permit to move a project ahead.It is recommended that indicators for sustainable development and their progress be fully monitored. Performance indicators should always be established, not only for project implementation, but also during and after the implementation process to make sure that all mitigation measures are satisfactorily implemented. This can be achieved by linking the license granting authority for action to the actual implementation of these measures. To secure the environmental sustainability of an environmental project, it is also important to have the EIA document as an integral part of the license application document, and to make it available to inspectors during their necessarily frequent inspection visits.     

How “open” are open spaces: evaluating transformation of open space at residential level in Adelaide – a case study

This paper examines the transformation of open space and how it compares to older residential development. A study has been conducted at the residential level because neighbourhoods have been a basic unit of city design throughout the recent history of urban settlements. Furthermore, the neighbourhood is a more humanly relevant scale of urban development. The method adopted for this research was a comparative urbanism by comparing old and new residential areas. This study found that incremental redevelopment of old residential areas through both re-subdivision and intensification of development on existing allotments has resulted in a progressive loss of open space. However, the study also confirmed that the current supplies of open space across all the study areas (old and new residential areas) are relatively similar. The main difference between the open space supply in older and newer residential areas comes down to the ownership of land (i.e. the proportion of public versus private open space). The study demonstrated that older residential areas with large allotments have experienced a significant loss of private open space – originally from 50%, to current levels of 23–30%. The paper concludes that there is a need for a holistic approach to the provision of public and private open spaces to improve the quality of life at a residential level.     

物元可拓法的改进及在城市环境可持续发展综合评价中的应用

根据函数单调性特点及模糊识别中最大贴近度原则,分别从距离函数和关联函数两方面对物元可拓法在城市环境可持续发展综合评价过程中存在的不足进行了改进。距离函数改进后,能够真实地反应变量与区间的关系;关联函数改为贴近度函数后,评价结果中不再出现负值,易于级别的判定。采用改进后的物元可拓法建立了城市环境可持续发展综合评价的多级物元模型,对城市环境可持续发展现状进行了综合评价,结果表明该方法更快捷,评价结果能更客观地反映城市环境可持续发展现状。     

Positive perceptions of green and open space as predictors of neighbourhood quality of life: implications for urban planning across the city region

The provision of green and open space in the face of wider development pressure is a key urban challenge. Despite this, few studies have critically investigated the quality of life implications of such provision. This paper focuses on perceptions of built environment factors and their influence on neighbourhood quality of life. Data are drawn from a household survey questionnaire completed by 483 residents living in three neighbourhoods in Dublin, Ireland – an inner city neighbourhood, a suburb and a peri-urban settlement. Positive perceptions of green and open space were identified as important predictors of high levels of neighbourhood satisfaction, surpassed only by dwelling characteristics. This suggests that development strategies which fail to provide for properly planned green and open spaces may be detrimental to neighbourhood quality of life. Furthermore, the results suggest a need for design solutions which consider neighbourhood typology in achieving improved neighbourhood quality of life.     

Integrating urban ecosystem sustainability assessment into policy-making: insights from the Gold Coast City

This paper introduces a policy-making support tool called ‘Micro-level Urban-ecosystem Sustainability IndeX (MUSIX)’. The index serves as a sustainability assessment model that monitors six aspects of urban ecosystems – hydrology, ecology, pollution, location, design, and efficiency – based on parcel-scale indicators. This index is applied in a case study investigation in the Gold Coast City, Queensland, Australia. The outcomes reveal that there are major environmental problems caused by increased impervious surfaces from growing urban development in the study area. The findings suggest that increased impervious surfaces are linked to increased surface runoff, car dependency, transport-related pollution, poor public transport accessibility, and unsustainable built environment. This paper presents how the MUSIX outputs can be used to guide policy-making through the evaluation of existing policies.     

环境可持续发展理论体系框架的构建

环境问题包括生态环境与社会、经济与生态环境关系两方面的问题，本文从社：会、经济、文化以及环境科技发展等不同角度论述了环境可持续发展理论体系框架的构建，认为环境可持续发展必须是在体现公平性、可持续性、协调性的基础上，建立以生态思维为基础的社会环境伦理观、发展环境科学技术、实现经济的有机增长，不断完善环境政策与环境法制体系，     

Living the green city: Freiburg's Solarsiedlung between narratives and practices of sustainable urban development

The solar settlement (Solarsiedlung) in Freiburg, Germany, has been widely hailed as an eco-city or green city neighbourhood and a blueprint for sustainable urban development. However, as there is a noticeable lack of critical analysis of what constitutes Solarsiedlung as an “eco-city”, this paper studies narratives and practices of sustainable urban development. First, we look at Solarsiedlung as a best-practice model – a narrative that was produced and perpetuated by architects, urban planners, investors and academics celebrating this neighbourhood as a technologically leapfrogging, economically sound and socially integrated project. Second, we explore the everyday practices and lived experience of the residents in Solarsiedlung. Bringing together these two perspectives, we contribute to a more comprehensive understanding and critical reading of the interplay between the ecological, economic and social dimensions of sustainable development as seen from different viewpoints. Findings indicate that Solarsiedlung as a best-practice model is embedded in growth-oriented neoliberal strategies that are in conflict with the everyday practices and lived experience of the residents. Our findings put into question the widely assumed transferability of best-practice models in sustainable urban development.     

城市生态环境质量评价——以南充市为例

以可持续发展理论为指导,结合南充生态城市建设的要求,对南充城市生态环境进行定量评价并提出改进对策。采用城市空气污染指数API等23个指标,应用层次分析法对四川省第二座大城市南充的生态环境质量进行定量评价,2010年南充城市的生态质量综合值P为0.67,达到Ⅲ级标准,城市生态可持续发展水平状况良好。伴随着快速的城市化和人口激增,南充城市生态问题日益突出。主要问题表现为:老城区交通拥堵、绿地面积小、建筑屋间距不够,城市环境指数低,工业园区建设与城市房地产开发占用较多土地,城市原生态的生态-地貌景观被人为过度的破坏与改造,城市经济有待进一步发展。     

The application of an indicator based on taxonomic distinctness for UK marine biodiversity assessments

Mankind needs to use the resources and opportunities offered by the marine environment while protecting ecological processes and systems. This is the foundation for sustainable development, which can only be achieved by adopting an appropriate management approach. Whether internationally or at a regional scale, successful management of marine ecosystems needs to be based on a scientifically robust approach to monitoring environmental change. Within such a framework, the conservation of marine biological diversity is problematic, as many conventional measures of diversity are not appropriate for measuring the types of change that require management. New indicators are required and in this paper we summarise some of the current methodology being used to derive such indices, which may be used to evaluate the effectiveness of marine stewardship initiatives. Through a series of examples we demonstrate the application of the taxonomic distinctness indicator of biodiversity to marine environmental assessment and its development towards becoming an operational tool.     

Viability of using global standards for neighbourhood sustainability assessment: insights from a comparative case study

Neighbourhoods are increasingly gaining attention as planning units of great potential for contribution to sustainable development. Many assessment tools such as LEED-ND, BREEAM Communities and CASBEE-UD have been developed to examine the sustainability of neighbourhood development projects. Some of these tools are claimed to be suitable for assessment in different contexts, and LEED-ND has already been utilised in various countries. This study investigates the viability of using global standards through a series of comparative case studies. One certified case from each of the aforementioned tools is chosen and evaluated against its non-corresponding assessment tools. Selected cases are, respectively, Hoyt Yards, MediaCityUK and Koshigaya Lake Town. Results of this study provide evidence that casts doubt on the viability of using global standards. The paper concludes that neighbourhood sustainability assessment should be regarded as a pluralistic practice. This implies that any realistic and reliable assessment should take account of the specificities of specific locations and varying needs of different stakeholders.     

Pesticide environmental indicators and environmental policy

A current concern in many European countries is the environmental impact of agricultural pesticide usage and appropriate policy development to reduce impact. Currently, relatively hazardous pesticides that might be targeted for replacement by other products or management practices are not positively identified, with consequently few incentives for farmers to choose the least environmentally-risky chemicals. There is a lacuna in terms of widely-agreed operational environmental indicators, and an urgent need for comparative environmental assessment tools for pesticides, for use by both agriculturists and policy-makers. Such a system could, for example, provide a basis on which to differentiate an eco-tax according to the environmental threats posed by each product, and thus improve policy effectiveness. The heterogeneity of pesticide chemicals should be taken into account more explicitly in policy design. Through a comparison of different approaches covered in the literature on pesticide environmental classifications, this paper assesses the feasibility of developing environmental banding to improve the effectiveness of pesticide policy. A more pragmatic approach lies in the development of pesticide groupings rather than a continuous scale of environmental burden, i.e. focusing on broad similarities and differences rather than precise individual ordering. In particular, hazard indicators should be considered further, as a first stage in progress towards comprehensive environmental impact measures.     

城市人居环境与经济发展协调性分析——以南充市城市建成区为例

城市人居环境与经济协调发展是实现南充市可持续发展的重要途径。文章利用主成分分析法，求出1997—2006年南充市城市建成区人居环境与经济系统的综合发展指标，分析近10年城市人居环境与经济协调程度。